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THE ANNALS 


AND 


MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY, 


INCLUDING 
ZOOLOGY, BOTANY, ann GEOLOGY. 


(BEING A CONTINUATION OF THE ‘ANNALS ’ COMBINED WITH LOUDON AND 
CHARLESWORTH 'S ‘MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY.’) 


CONDUCTED BY 


CHARLES C. BABINGTON, Esa., M.A,, F.R.S., F.LS., F.G.S., 
JOHN EDWARD GRAY, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.LS., V.P.ZS. &e., 
WILLIAM S. DALLAS, F.LS., 

AND 


WILLIAM FRANCIS, Ph.D., F.L.S. 


—— —_ — ees 


VOL. V.—FOURTH Sve aie 


AR ARR AARP AAA IIS OOS 


LONDON: 
PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY TAYLOR AND FRANCIS. 


SOLD BY LONGMANS, GREEN, READER, AND DYER; SIMPKIN, MARSHALL, AND CO.; 
KENT AND CO.; BAILLIERE, REGENT STREET, AND PARIS: 
MACLACHLAN AND STEWART, EDINBURGH ?} 

HODGES AND SMITH, DUBLIN: AND ASHER, BERLIN. 


1870. 


“ Omnes res create sunt divine sapientiz et potentiz testes, divitiz felicitatis 
humane :—ex harum usu Jonitas Creatoris; ex pulchritudine sapéentia Domini ; 
ex cconomiad in conservatione, proportione, renovatione, potentia majestatis 
elucet. Harum itaque indagatio ab hominibus sibi relictis semper sestimata ; 
a veré eruditis et sapientibus semper exculta; malé doctis et barbaris semper 
inimica fuit.”—Linnavs. 


“Quel que soit le principe de la vie animale, il ne faut qu’ouvrir les yeux pour 
voir qu’elle est le chef-d’eeuyre de la Toute-puissance, et le but auquel se rappor- 
tent toutes ses opérations.”—Bruckner, Théorie du Systéme Animal, Leyden, 
1767. 


06 0 eonoen . . . . The sylvan powers 
Obey our summons; from their deepest dells 
The Dryads come, and throw their garlands wild 
And odorous branches at our feet; the Nymphs 
That press with nimble step the mountain-thyme 
And purple heath-flower come not empty-handed, 
But scatter round ten thousand forms minute 
Of velvet moss or lichen, torn from rock 
Or rifted oak or cavern deep: the Naiads too 
Quit their loved native stream, from whose smooth face 
They crop the lily, and each sedge and rush 
That drinks the rippling tide: the frozen poles, 
Where peril waits the bold adventurer’s tread, 
The burning sands of Borneo and Cayenne, 
All, all to us unlock their secret stores 
And pay their cheerful tribute. 

J. Taytor, Norwich, 1818. 


ALERE {§ FLAMMAM. 


CONTENTS OF VOL. V. 


[FOURTH SERIES. } 


NUMBER XXV. 


I. On the Organization of Sponges, and their Relationship to the 
Coral Gy NSE EUACIORD. crn ou siaciec a sch aces 04 ce Se pe waaay 


II. On the Species of the Genus Phi/hydrus found in the Atlantic 
LEVON CCMA 8 gpl DSS] 5 7) 5 Da eR mR gO ATL AB 


III. On a Byssiferous Fossil Trigonta. By Joun Lycert, M.D.. 


IV. On the Coleoptera of St. Helena, By T. Vernon Wot- 
bP. Wein! Dy as Lave yl 2-5 We a aim 8 ee A EA 


V. Notule Lichenologice. No. XXXI. By the Rev. W. A. 
LEIGHTON, B.A., F.L.S., F.B.S.Ed.—On certain new Characters in 
the Species of the Genera Nephroma (Ach.) and Nephromium, Ny]. . 


VI. On a new Genus of Testacellide in Australia. By C. SEMPER 


VII. On a new Species of the Genus Pennella. By Epwarp PER- 
cEVAL Wriaut, M.D., F.L.S., Professor of Botany in the University 
OU ee ER eM eee crs sa helenae iat haen weet sts 


VIII. On Janassa bituminosa, Schlotheim, from the Marl-Slate of 
Midderidge, Durham. By ArBpany Hancock, F.L.S.,and RicHarD 
Howstie: (Plates UE GBH.) yo sc het alates de caper aaa He 


IX. Description of a supposed new Species of Pigeon. By JoHn 
RO gee Matt dite oo neta aetna sacdip ie nee one «er eveseis areata ees 


Deep-sea Researches, by Dr. G. C. Wallich; On the Specitie Dis- 
tinctness of Anodonta anatina, by R. M. Lloyd; On the Strue- 
ture and Mode of Growth of the Scales of Fishes, by Dr. Salbey; 
On the Anatomy of the Aleyonarta, by MM. G. Pouchet and A. 
Myévre ; Observations on the Nasal Glands of Birds, by M. Jo- 
bert; On Remains of the Beaver in New Jersey, by Mason 
C. Weld; Note on the Respiration of the Nymphe of the 
Libellule, by M. Oustalet ; The late Professor Michael Sars, of 


Page 


Christiania, by J. Gwyn Jeffreys, F.R.S. 2........5.0.. 63—71 


NUMBER XXVI. 


X. Note on the Sponges Grayella, Osculina, and Cliona. By H. J. 
MA eee ee ee NC. AG 8.4. SS ohne so a a ces oben aE 


iv CONTENTS. 


XI. Reply to Mr. Frederick Smith on the Relations between 
Wasps and Rhipiphori. By ANDREW Murray, F.LS. .......... 


XII. Additions to the Tenebrionide of Australia &c. By Francis 
SPARCOR, FU,5:) EZ.0. 9 MGs, ove vies a ciple Wm olel alles 9 srpubens oye lebuslame 


XIII. On the Organization of Sponges, and their Relationship to 
the Corals. By Ernst HACKEL 


© éiele a/R 6) 0] © 18 04%. (6 6/0) 0) 0. e098 wis is) eke mae sere 


XIV. On a new Genus of the Madreporaria or Stony Corals (Ste- 
nohelia). By Wm. S. Kent, F.Z.8., F.R.M.S., of the Geological 
Department, British Museum 


aS oa aie 6 a) o fe uo ae) 6 8) Be. 6. 0) ete, wipe Ra ms: Oe 


XV. Notule Lichenologice. No. XXXII. By the Rev. W. A. 
LerenTon, B.A., F.L.S., &e.—Dr. E. Stizenberger’s Analytical Key 
to the Lecidee 


ie we 6 Le RAO ee eee) eB) 8 Res! el eee ne eeu a) eels OR Le meee eee eRe ce ae 


New Books :—Flora Europea Algarum aque dulcis et submarine, 
auctore Ludovico Rabenhorst, Philos. Dr., Ordinis Albrecht. 
Equite, Acad. et Societ. plur. Sodali—Microscopic Objects 
figured and described, by John H. Martin, Secretary to the 


Page 


83 


94 


107 


Maidstone and Mid-Kent Natural-History Society. No. I. 127—1388 


Upon the Mode of Formation of the Egg and the Embryonic Deve- 
lopment of the Sacculine, by M. E. van Beneden; Food of 
Oceanic Animals, by J. Gwyn Jeffreys, F.R.S.; Note on the 
Habits of the Discophora, by the Rev. Thomas Hincks, B.A. ; 
Note on the Occurrence of two Species of Crustacea not hitherto 
observed in Scotland, by M. Watson, M.D.; Spatangus meri- 
dionalis, Risso, by J. Gwyn Jeffreys; Note on the Arrangement 
of the Pores or Afferent Orifices in Cliona celata, Grant, by M. 
Léon Vaillant ; British Killer or Orca, by Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S., 
&e.; On the Antiquity of the Ass and Horse as Domestic Ani- 
mals in Egypt, by M. F. Lenormant; Embryonic Development 
of Bothriocephalus proboscideus, by E. Mecznikow; Note on a 
Station of a living Encrinus (Pentacrinus europeus) upon the 
Coasts of France, by M. Lacaze-Duthiers ; Observations on the 
Salivary Glands in Myrmecophaga tamandua, by M. J. Chatin. . 


140—152 


NUMBER XXVII. 


XVI. On the Myology of the Wombat (Phascolomys wombata) 
and the Tasmanian Devil (Sarcophilus ursinus). By ALEXANDER 
MacatisTER, Professor of Zoology and Director of the Museum, 
Wniveraty of Dublin, <<. 5 cay. sack oss piste et eae emai ttca 


XVII. Descriptions of three new Species of Birds from China. 
By Rosert Swinuor, F.Z.S. .... 


CONTENTS. W 


Page 
XVIII. Prodromus of a System of the Calcareous Sponges. By 
Re get NC Ree anise bicicemdeles ainsie le ey aivcis woke cererms sei sia ces 176 
XIX. On the Parasitism of Rhipiphorus paradoxus. By T. Au- 
SUIDEE IS OMNES MUNN NE MNT AL Sh AN Win favel gaia ste tetas ees oe Seance art 191 


XX. Concluding Observations on the Parasitism of Rhipiphorus 
paradoxus. By FrrpEricK Smiru, Assistant in the Zoological 
Dopantment-of the British Museum’... ah Bek so were wielels oe 198 


XXI. Hiickel on the Relationship of the Sponges to the Corals. 
By Ws. S. Kent, F.Z.S., F.R.M.S., of the Geological Department, 


TeyiA cet Slee WERE MAA eae ecko Sel gas ce Saga etd ana labo ace waa y aero 204 
XXII. Descriptions of some new Species of Birds from Southern 
Asia. By Arnruur, Viscount WALDEN, P.Z.S. &......... 60sec 218 


XXIII. List of the Bones of Seals and Whales in the Colonial 
Museum, Wellington, New Zealand. By Dr. JamEs HecrTor, F.R.S. 
Us MDa Nl 0 SL 2 a) 3s Oe 220 


New Books :—Index to the Fossil Remains of Aves, Ornithosauria, 
and Reptilia, from the Secondary System of Strata, arranged in 
the Woodwardian Museum of the University of Cambridge, 
by H. G. Seeley, of St. John’s College, Cambridge. With a 
Prefatory Notice by the Rev. A. Sedgwick, LL.D., &c. &c. 
Mémoire sur les Ascoboles, par M. EK. Boudier.......... 225, 226 


On the Genus Asterostoma, belonging to the Family Echinocorydee, 
by MG; Cotteau’s’ Sars Pandy. ).2'. Au ely aos 230—232 


NUMBER XXVIII. 
XXIV. On the Structure and Development of the Antheridium in 


Betas see eb ley Lis JKONy,. (iebate: Vile) 1s sarek Va Para web's vane Hepes 233 
XXV. On Additions to the Coleopterous Fauna of the Cape-Verde 
Islands. By T. Vernon Wottaston, M.A., F.L.S. ............ 245 ~ 


XXVI. Notes on the Structure of the Crinotdea, Cystidea, and 
Blastoidea. By E. Bruurnes, F.G.8., Paleeontologist of the Geolo- 
pieammVey: Of OREM.) oy cc kn oealcue ginweVaaoa.s Oe eh vs oF pa ek 251 


XXVIII. Note on an undescribed Fossil Fish from the Newsham 
Coal-shale near Newcastle-upon-Tyne. By Atsany Hancock, 
A Sande PetOy ABT UIOS Eh nh 8 Oa sake. 2 wre dior sue ate 266 


XXVIII. On a new Species of Sagitta from the South Pacific (8. 
tricuspidata). By Wm. S. Kent, F.Z.S., F.R.M.S., of the Geological 
Department, British Museum 2.5 4.0.0. cc cei ek seek deehveceens 268 


vi CONTENTS. 


XXIX. On the Pairing of Zoospores, the Morphologically Funda- 
mental Form of Reproduction in the Vegetable Kingdom. By N. 
MP ARPTROM cc ig e vsleie's Slain os ae Vane a FAN ee > 500s oa eee 


XXX. A last word in Reply to Dr. Chapman and Mr. Frederick 
Smith on the Relations of the Wasp and Rhipiphorus. By, ANDREW 
DRAB Pe recreates aca al ORE ME eta et TGR esta a ae acme 


XXXI. On Ornithopsis, a Gigantic Animal of the Pterodactyle 
kind from the Wealden. By Harry G. Srerey, F.G.S., Assistant 
to Prof. Sedgwick in the Woodwardian Museum of the University 
RRO RMEUDEIADO. Oo cdc she's ia eon ete cine ore. tes can eyy yeas ot tee omens 


XXXII. On Zoocapsa dolichorhamphia, a Sessile Cirripede from 
the Lias of Lyme Regis. By Harry G. SErxey, F.G.S., Assistant 
to Prof. Sedgwick in the Woodwardian Museum of the University 
DE ORMOND Crag Sa sre celens sd fe shojscviatdle Weis Ge apckAes oe oan cee eee 


New Book :—Catalogus methodicus et synomymicus Hemipterorum 
Heteropterorum Italize indigenorum, accedit descriptio aliquot 
specierum vel minus vel nondum cognitarum, auctore Antonio 


Pee lett BLAS ek caste Becks al inset ae 


Proceedings of the Royal Society ......0..6..s:eeseeenne pee 


On Parthenogenesis in Polistes gallica, by Prof. C. T. von Siebold ; 
On Force and Will, by B. A. Gould; On the Constitution and 
Mode of Formation of the Ovum of the Sacculine, by M. Bal- 
biani ; On some Mammalia from Eastern Thibet, by M. A. Milne- 
Edwards ; On the Transformation of the Nests of the House- 
Martin (Hirundo urbica, Linn.), by M. A. Pouchet; Character 
of a new Species of Crossoptilon, by the Abbé Armand David. . 


Page 


272 


278 


279 


285 


298—308 


NUMBER XXIX. 


XXXII. On two new Species of the Foraminiferous Genus Squa- 
mulina; and on a new Species of Diftugia. By H. J. Carter, 
F.R.S. &e. (Plates IV. & V.) 


XXXIV. Descriptions of new Species of Birds from the Solomon 
and Banks's Groups of Islands. By G. R. Gray .............-.. 


XXXV. On Fertilization in Ferns. By Dr. Epwarp Srras- 
BURGER 


Yip i eect ac Pee eet a ar er ee ye ec! Fy eed ta 


ove mye where aim os RUS iain ol eis) E 
Bs Cee e026 wees ore 6,0 mus ese, atese ele ce) ebu tele ke fale leon ies 0 is) 


XXXVI. On the British Species of Didymograpsus. By Henry 
ALLEYNE Nicuoxson, M.D., D.Sc., M.A., F.R.S.E., F.G.S., Lee- 


309 


327 


331 


CONTENTS. vil 
Page 

turer on Natural History in the Extra-Academical School of Edin- 
Buin Ce la teaV Ely ae hs 8 th aire aus e orteg WES slentefesarets sokh ats 307 


XXXVI. List of Species,in a small Collection of Butterflies from 
the South Seas. By ArtHur GarpINneR But eR, F.L.S. &. .... 857 


XXXVITI, On new Diurnal Lepidoptera. By A. G. BuTEr, 
[Sh CES. 3 CaN MCR nee Ag ey ES a RET a POO MTGE SOLA, SAPS Reo 362 


XXXIX. A word in explanation of a passage occurring in my 
“ Concluding Observations on the Parasitism of Rhipiphorus para- 
doxus.” By FREDERICK SMITH ..... Wrestle ate e.o Gate erage 365 


XL. Notes on Myriosteon Higginsii. By Dr. J. E. Gray, 
LES US Pc Bec para ar We aR ae nee Eee ip ne Pe Bernice St Gee mT e 366 


XLI. Researches on the Freshwater Crustacea of Belgium. (Se- 
cond and Third’ Parts.) By Peure PLATEAU. ec eta share at 367 


XLII. Note on Polytrema miniaceum. By Prof. G. J. ALLMAN, 
Lgl ats Bee Gm arbi wy oy toadnaricy ghee ete ICS oe MO ir eR ENE bar ae eR 372 


XLII. On the Occurrence of Loxomma Allmanni in the Northum- 
berland Coal-field. By AtBany Hancock, F.L.S., and THomas 
ING PIE Boyce Te CUA Gs es eee ea a es oe eee Ce 374 


The Male Prothallium of the Vascular Cryptogamia, by A. Millardet ; 
Morphological Researches on the Mollusca (first memoir : Gas- 
teropods), by M. Lacaze-Duthiers; A new British Land-Shell, 
by J. Gwyn Jeffreys, F.R.S.; On the presence of peculiar Or- 
gans belonging to the Branchial Apparatus in the Rays of the 
Genus Cephaloptera, by M. A. Duméril; Observations on the 
Turning of Fungi, by M. P. Duchartre; Deep-sea Dredging in 
TAGS Gi bie ciel ape ea A Sen Se a 8, 379—888 


NUMBER XXX. 


XLIV. On Haliphysema ramulosa (Bowerbank) and the Sponge- 
spicules of Polytrema. By H. J. Carrer, F.R.S. &............. 389 


XLV. Notes on a Collection of Spiders made in Sicily in the Spring 
of 1868. By E. Percevat Wrieut, M.D., F.L.S., Professor of 
Botany, Trinity College, Dublin. With a List of the Species, and 
Descriptions of some new Species and of a new Genus, by JoHN 
BEAK wearer EL s655,.° CE UNbea WIE eas shea le is salar o-uteeeh 3 392 


XLVI. Notes on some new Genera and Species of Aleyonoid Corals 
in the British Museum. By Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S., V.P.Z.S., &e.. 405 


XLVII. Notes on the Structure of the Crinoidea, Cystidea, and 
Blastoidea. By E. Briurnes, F.G.8., Paleontologist of the Geolo- 
SICA MOUV CY. ME OARAM st. o's sreia ca afc migrore aa dotatslerstuls, eth" Sm seh evel 409 


Vill CONTENTS. 


Page 
XLVIII. Descriptions of some new Species of Birds from Southern 
Asia. By Artruur, Viscount WALDEN, P.Z.S. &.............-. 416 


XLIX. On some Species of Proboscidiferous Gasteropods which in- 


habit the Seas of Japan. By ArTHuR Apams, F.L.S., Staff-Surgeon 
PE ek Seah ies bofe a ic td te  isute te wi tvR Ee ofateurbe reels int ts 9A, bel ore 418 


L. List of Coleoptera received from Old Calabar, on the West 
Coast of Africa. By ANDREW Murray, F.L.S. ........0-.-+05: 430 


LI. Norwegian Mollusca. By J. Gwyn Jerrreys, F.R.S. .... 458 


On Anthozoanthus parasiticus, Deshayes, MS. (Algiers), by H. J. 
Carter, F.R.S.; Notes on Myriosteon, by H. J. Carter, F.R.S. ; 
Geographical Distribution of Australian Whales, by Dr. J. E. 
Gray; On the Structure of a Fern-Stem from the Lower Kocene 
of Herne Bay, and on its Allies, recent and fossil, by W. Carru- 
thers, Esq., F.L.S., F.G.S8. ; Observations on the Ornithological 
Fauna of the Bourbonnais during the Middle Tertiary Period, 
by M. A. Milne-Edwards; On the Pancreas in Osseous Fishes, 
and on the nature of the Vessels discovered by Weber, by S. 
Legouis; On the Megadactylus polyzelus of Hitchcock, by E. D. 
BOR tend Svs cg ete cies se nate ge oo arene 449—454 


Index 


PLATES IN VOL. V. 


PuaTe I, New Species of Pennella. 
ah \y anassa bituminosa. 


IV. Squamulina scopula. 
V. Squamulina varians.—Difflugia bipes. 
VI. Structure of the Antheridium in Ferns. 
VII. British Species of Didymograpsus. 
VUI. New Genus and Species of Spiders. 


THE ANNALS 


AND 


MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 


[FOURTH SERIES. } 


SO cpm oA OHO per litora spargite muscum, 
Naiades, et circiim vitreos considite fontes: 
Pollice virgineo teneros hic carpite flores: 
Floribus et pictum, dive, replete canistrum. 
At vos, o Nymphe Craterides, ite sub undas; 
Ite, recurvato variata corallia trunco 
Vellite muscosis e rupibus, et mihi conchas 
Ferte, Dew pelagi, et pingui conchylia succo.” 

N. Parthenii Giannettasii Ecl. 1, 


No. 25. JANUARY 1870. 


I.—On the Organization of Sponges, and their Relationship to 
the Corals. By Ernst HACKEL*. 


THE class of Sponges has hitherto stood, in many respects, 
isolated in the world of organisms. No other class of the 
animal or vegetable kingdom, containing an equal number of 
abundant, large, and multifarious forms, has left naturalists, 
even up to the most recent times, so much in doubt as to its true 
nature, or called forth such a number of contradictory opinions. 
Whilst most of the older naturalists regarded the Sponges as 
plants, and most of the modern ones considered them to be ani- 
mals, the intermediate opinion also made itself felt from time to 
time—namely, that from the indifferency of the characters of 
their organization, and from their mixture of animal and 
vegetable peculiarities, they were to be assigned to that remark- 
able group of the lowest and simplest organisms, which (in my 
‘General Morphology of Organisms’) I have placed as the 
kingdom of the Protista, between the animal and vegetable 
kingdoms. Without entering here upon an historical exposition 
of the numerous different opinions which have ever been en- 
tertained by naturalists as to the position of the Sponges in 
the classification of organisms, the opposite stand-points of the 
most esteemed naturalists may nevertheless be briefly indicated. 


* From the ‘ Jenaische Zeitschrift,’ Band y. pp. 207-254; translated by 
W.S. Dallas, F.L.S. 


Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser.4. Vol. v. 1 


2 M. E. Hiackel on the Organization of Sponges, 


Placing at the head of them, as is customary, the name of 
Aristotle, even this “ father of natural history” was quite in 
doubt as to the nature of the sponges; for while, in many 
passages, he describes the sponges known to him as animals, 
he regards them in another place as plants, and in a third 
refers them to those indifferent organisms which constitute the 
ee and imperceptible transition from the animal to the 
plant. 

Linné, who regarded all the sponges known to him as spe- 
cies of a single genus, Spongia, placed them, in 1735 (in his 
‘Systema Nature’), at the end of the vegetable kingdom, be- 
low the lowest Cryptogamia, combining them with the corals 
and coralliform Bryozoa as Lithophyta. Even in the tenth 
edition of his ‘Systema Nature’ (1760) this view is main- 
tained. But in the twelfth edition (1767) he adopts the views 
of Ellis and Pallas, who had in the meanwhile declared the 
sponges to be animals, and placed them with the corals, among 
the Zoophyta. 

Of those naturalists who even subsequently regarded the 
sponges as plants, Spallanzani, Sprengel, and Oken are espe- 
cially to be noted; and this opinion has been held, even up to 
the most recent period, by Burmeister and Ehrenberg. Never- 
theless the sponges have pretty generally passed as animals 
since Grant, in 1826, thoroughly described the canal-system 
of the sponges with its “ pores”? and “oscula,’”’ and also ascer- 
tained their reproduction by means of ciliated free-swimming 
larvee. 

With regard to the position occupied by the sponges in the 
system of animals, two different views especially stand at pre- 
sent in opposition to one another, and have done so for more 
than twenty years. In conjunction with Cuvier, most zoolo- 
gists regarded the sponges as the nearest allies of the corals or 
polypes, and referred them, with these, to the primary divi- 
sion of the Radiata. The determining motive for this posi- 
tion was not, however, the recognition of the actual agreement 
of the sponges and corals in their most essential characters of 
organization, but rather the external similarity which exists 
between many sponges and corals in outward habit, and espe- 
cially in the mode of stock-formation. But when, about a 

uarter of a century ago, it began to be perceived that the so- 
called “ Radiate type” was a confusedly mixed assemblage of 
very various lower animals, and when, afterwards, as the re- 
cognition of their differences of organization advanced, the 
Radiata were divided into the three quite different main groups 
of the Echinodermata, Coelenterata, and Protozoa, the sponges 
were not left with the corals or Anthozoa among the Ceelen- 


and their Relationship to the Corals. 3 


terata, but degraded into the lowest section of the animal 
kingdom—a particular place being assigned to them, with the 
Infusoria and Rhizopoda, among the Protozoa. 

The accurate investigations of the minute organization of 
the sponges which have been made since 1848, with improved 
microscopic appliances, and in accordance with the require- 
ments of modern anatomy, appeared at first to fix this last 
position afresh. The very careful anatomical investigations 
- of Carter in the East Indies (from 1848) and of Lieberkiihn 
in Berlin (from 1856) seemed concordantly to lead to the re- 
sult that the sponges were true Protozoa, and possessed close 
relations of affinity, on the one hand, to the Rhizopoda, and 
especially to the Amcebee, and, on the other, to the true Infu- 
soria (Ciliata) and to the Flagellata. In particular the struc- 
ture of the parts of the siliceous skeleton of the siliceous 
sponges was compared to that of the similar and often 
scarcely distinguishable siliceous formations of the Sphzerozoa 
and other Radiolaria. Moreover certain isolated sponge-cells 
were not to be distinguished from Ameebe. ‘The isolated 
ciliary cells from the canal-system of the sponges, which bear 
only one long whip-like cilium, resembled the individual Fla- 
gellata. Whilst thus the relationships of the sponges to the 
other Protozoa were sought in various directions, on the other 
hand the characteristic canal-system of the sponge-body could 
not but appear as a higher organic contrivance, which was 
entirely wanting in the other Protozoa, or at the utmost ad- 
mitted of a very distant physiological comparison with the 
contractile vesicle of the Infusoria and Amcebe. Hence, in 
proportion as more extended investigations revealed the multi- 
farious modifications of this canal-system in the various groups 
of sponges, the opinion became more and more general that 
this was a quite peculiar vascular apparatus, and that the 
whole class of sponges was in consequence to be regarded as 
a class of animals sui generts, which stood in no near relations 
of affinity to any other class, either among the Protozoa or 
among the Ccelenterata. 

This opinon, which is now predominant, that the peculiar 
canal-system of the sponges represents a perfectly specific 
nutritive apparatus, such as occurs in no other animals, and 
that, consequently, the Spongie are to be regarded as a pecu- 
liar and isolated class of animals sud generis, was expressed 
even by Grant (1826) and Johnston (1842), and has been 
maintained in recent times, especially by those zoologists who 
have gained most credit for the classification of sponges, 
namely, Oscar Schmidt and Bowerbank. The further the 
systematic investigations of the latter extended, and the more 

1% 


4 M. E. Hickel on the Organization of Sponges, 


the minute structure of the sponges has been made known of 
late by the researches of Lieberkiihn and Klliker, the more 
did this isolated position of the class of sponges with its spe- 
cific “ water-vascular system ”’ appear to be established. 

In opposition to this predominant conception, only a few 
naturalists have of late adhered to the older opinion, that the 
Spongie were of all animals most nearly allied to the corals. 
Among these few Leuckart is especially to be noted. In 1854 
he directly asserted the relationship of the sponges and polypes 
(corals) in the following words :— If we imagine a polype- 
colony with imperfectly separated individuals, without tenta- 
cles, stomachal sac, and internal septa, we have in fact the 
image of a sponge with its large ‘ water-canals’ opening out- 
wardly.”” Leuckart accordingly placed the sponges in the 
system with the corals, in the natural primary group of the 
Ceelenterata, the typical arrangement of the organization of 
which he had been the first to recognize, in 1848, in their 
gastrovascular apparatus, the “ ccelenteric canal-system.” He 
did not, however, either then or afterwards, adduce any fur- 
ther proof of the near relationship of the sponges and corals, 
or demonstrate in detail the homologies actually existing be- 
tween the two classes. 

When I was staying, for three months, in the winter of 
1866-67, upon the Canarian island of Lanzarote, I induced 
my travelling companion and pupil, M. Miklucho-Maclay, of 
St. Petersburg, to mvestigate thoroughly the extraordinarily 
rich sponge-fauna which we met with upon the lava-blocks of 
Puerto del Arrecife, the harbour of the island. The most 
important result of these spongiological investigations, of the 
correctness of which I have repeatedly convinced myself by 
my own observations, was the fact that the sponges stand in 
a much nearer relationship to the corals than has been pre- 
viously admitted, and even than Leuckart had supposed. In 
particular, it appeared, from Miklucho’s investigations, that 
the “ perfectly peculiar” canal-system of the sponge-body was 
by no means such a peculiarly specific arrangement, but rather 
equivalent in general, both in form and function, to the gastro- 
vascular system or ccelenteric apparatus of the Ccelenterata, 
and especially of the corals; in fact that this “nutritive sys- 
tem” is both homologous and analogous in the two classes. 
I was able the more impartially to recognize this highly im- 

ortant fact, by which the true affinity of the Spongie and 
celenterata is definitively established, because previously, 
following the prevailing opinion, and supported particularly 
upon the views of Lieberkiihn and Oscar Schmidt, I had re- 
garded the sponges as peculiar Protozoa, most nearly allied to 


~ 


and their Relationship to the Corals. in 


the Rhizopoda, and had placed them, in my ‘ General Morpho- 
logy,’ in the indifferent kingdom of the Protista. — 

Miklucho has published the most important results of his 
researches in his ‘ Beitriige zur Kenntniss der Spongien,” 
which appeared in 1868 in the fourth volume of the ‘ Jenaische 
Zeitschritt ’ (pp. 221-240, pls. 4&5). They relate chietly to 
the remarkable Guancha blanca, a small calcareous sponge, 
which is to be reckoned one of the most interesting forms of 
the whole animal kingdom; for it forms small stocks (corm), 
the constituent individuals (persons) of which belong, accord- 
ing to their structure, to different genera, and even different 
families, of the Calcispongiz, and nevertheless grow forthtrom 
one and the same root. 

Miklucho’s remarkable observations on Guancha blanca, of 
the accuracy of which I constantly convinced myself with my 
own eyes while in Lanzarote, induced me last winter to submit 
to a comparative examination the numerous small calcareous 
sponges which I had previously collected in the North Sea at 
Heligoland, and in the Mediterranean at Nice, Naples, and 
Messina. Subsequently I also found some interesting small 
calcareous sponges on stones, univalve shells, and alge, which 
I had collected, during my return journey from the Canary 
Islands, on the north-west coast of Africa, near Mogador, and 
in the Straits of Gibraltar, near Algeciras, and brought with 
me well preserved in spirits. To this rich material of my own 
was added the calcareous sponges of the Zoological Museums 
of Edinburgh, Berlin, Munich, and Hamburg, which MM. 
Allman, Peters, Von Siebold, and Bolau were kind enough to 
send me. Through M. Schmeltz, I obtained from the Godef- 
froy Museum a number of interesting Australian calcareous 
sponges from Bass’s Straits. My honoured friend and col- 
league, Professor Oscar Schmidt of Gratz, was good enough 
to send me specimens of the greater part of the calcareous 
sponges collected by him in the Adriatic. How abundant was 
the material thus placed at my command may be best learnt 
from the fact that I have been able to distinguish no fewer 
than 42 genera and 132 species among the Calcispongiz. 

I shall give exact descriptions and figures of these cal- 
careous sponges, increased by a number of new forms which I 
expect to have sent to me by various colleagues, in the special 
part of my monograph of the Calcispongiz, now im course of 
preparation. In the general part of this monograph I shall give 
a detailed exposition of the general natural history of the Cal- 
cispongiw, which, I hope, will advance not only the knowledge 
of this little group, but in many respects that of the sponges 
in general. For although the legion of the Calcispongiz is 


6 M. E. Hickel on the Organization of Sponges, 


one of the smallest legions of the class of sponges, and, more- 
over, for the major part, contains exceptionally small, nay, 
even microscopic forms, it is nevertheless capable, more than 
all other sponges, of throwing a valuable general light upon 
the conditions of organization and affinity of the whole class. 
Moreover the special systematic and morphological relations 
of this small order are so simple and clear, and the genealo- 
gical relationships of its different genera and species so instruc- 
tive and interesting, that a thorough elucidation of them is 
of great importance even to the general classification of or- 
ganisms. 

As the most important result of my investigations, I start 
with the following general proposition :—The sponges are 
most nearly allied to the corals of all organisms. Certain 
sponges differ from certain corals only by a less degree of histo- 
logical differentiation, and especially by the want of urticating 
organs. The most essential peculiarity of the organization 
of sponges is their nutritive canal-system, which is both ho- 
mologous with and analogous to the so-called ccelenteric vas- 
cular system, or gastrovascular apparatus of the Coelenterata. 
In the sponges, just as in the corals, and, indeed, in the 
Ceelenterata generally, all the different parts of the body 
originate by differentiation from two primitive simple forma- 
tive membranes or germ-lamelle, the entoderm and the ecto- 
derm. These two lamelle originate by differentiation from the 
originally homogeneous cells which (having been produced by 
the segmentation of the ovum) compose the spherical body of 
the ciliated embryo or of the primitive larva (Planula). From 
the inner or vegetative germ-lamella, the entoderm, originate 
the nutritive epithelium of the canal-system and the reproduc- 
tive organs. From the outer or animal germ-lamella, the ec- 
toderm, all the other parts originate. 

Before I proceed to support this proposition by a brief state- 
ment of the results of my observations, I may be permitted to 
make a few remarks upon the position which, in accordance with 
it, the sponges will henceforward have to occupy in the system of 
the animal kingdom, beside or below the Ceelenterata. For as we 
must infer, from the general homology which exists between all 
parts of the sponge- and coral-organisms, not merely an apparent 
anatomical agreement, but an actual blood-relationship of the 
two classes of animals, the question forces itself upon us, with 
respect to the system, what particular place the sponges will 
have to take in the existing classification of the Coelenterata. 

In recent zoological systems the stem or type of the Coelen- 
terata is pretty generally divided into three classes :—1. Corals 
(Polypes or Anthozoa); 2. Hydromeduse (Hydroida and 


and their Relationship to the Corals. 7 


Medusz) ; 3. Ctenophora (Ciliograda). All the animals of 
these three classes agree not only in the characteristic formation 
of the nutritive vascular system, but also in the possession of 
urticating organs, for, which reason Huxley grouped them to- 
gether as Nematophora. These characteristic urticating organs 
are entirely deficient in all true sponges. The absolute defi- 
ciency of the urticating organs in all sponges, and their constant 
presence in all corals, Hydromedusz, and Ctenophora, is at 
present the sole morphological character which sharply and 
decidedly separates the first class from the last three. I have 
therefore, in my ‘ Monograph of the Monera,’ and subsequently 
in my ‘ Natural History of Creation,’ included the three last- 
mentioned classes under the old name of Acalephe or, Cnride 
(nettle-animals). Even Aristotle comprehended under this 
denomination the two characteristic primary types of the 
group, the free-swimming Meduse and the sedentary Actinie. 
Moreover the distinctive character of the nettle-animals, 
namely the possession of urticating organs, is just as clearly 
expressed by this denomination as by Huxley’s name Nema- 
tophora. 

We should therefore have to divide the stem or phylum of 
the Zoophytes (Coelenterata s. Zoophyta) mto two primary 
groups (subphyla or cladi)—1, Sponges (Sponge s. Pori- 
Jera), and, 2, Nettle-animals (Acalepha, s. Cnide, s. Nemato- 
phora). ‘The latter would divide into the three classes of the 
Corals, Hydromedusz, and Ctenophora. Among the sponges 
we might provisionally distinguish as two classes the Auto- 
spongie and the fossil Petrospongie, as hitherto these two 
groups have not allowed themselves to be brought into near 
connexion either in the whole or in detail. Among the Auto- 
sie the Calcispongie would form a distinct subclass or 

egion. 

We might perhaps go even further, and, supported by the 
very near relations of affinity of the sponges and corals, speak 
in favour of the following division of the Coelenterata :— 


Cladus I. Bush-animals (THAMNODA). 
Class 1. Sponges (Spongie). 
Class 2. Corals (Corallia). 

Cladus II. Sea-jellies (Mepus#). 


Class 1. Umbrella-jellies (Hydromeduse). 
Class 2. Comb-jellies (Ctenophore). 


Time only can decide which grouping best corresponds 
to the natural relationships, when the genealogy of the 


8 M. E. Hickel on the Organization of Sponges, 


Ccelenterata can be more completely established upon the 
basis of extended ontogenetic and comparative anatomical in- 
vestigations. 

That the essential agreement in the internal organization of 
the sponges and corals, their actual homology, has hitherto 
been for the most part overlooked is due, among other things, 
to the fact that the most accurate anatomical investigations of 
recent times (especially those of Lieberkiihn) took their start 
from the two best-known and commonest forms of sponges— 
namely, the freshwater sponge (Spongilla), which belongs to 
the group of the true siliceous sponges, and the common sponge 
(Euspongia), belonging to the group of horny sponges. But 
these very two forms of sponges differ in many respects con- 
siderably from the original and typical structure of the entire 
class, have been in many ways modified and retromorphosed 
by adaptation to special conditions of existence, and therefore 
easily lead to erroneous conceptions, especially as their inves- 
tigation is comparatively difficult. 

On the other hand, among all the sponges, no group appears 
better fitted to shed full light upon the typical organization 
and the true relations of affinity of the whole class than the 
legion of the Calcispongiz. Lieberkiihn has already expressly 
acknowledged this in his ‘ Beitrige zur Anatomie der Kalk- 
spongien’ (1865), and endeavoured, from the results obtained 
from the Calcispongie, to render the other sponges more in- 
telligible. 

This applies in the first instance even to the ¢ndividuality 
of the Calcispongiz, which is adapted, in a far higher degree 
than that of most other sponges, to elucidate the difficult tec- 
tology or theory of individuality of the sponges. Reserving 
the circumstantial statement of these conditions, which are 
equally interesting and important, for my monograph of the 
Calcispongiz, I will here cite only the result of my special in- 
vestigations upon this point. ‘This consists essentially (leav- 
ing out of consideration some modifications) in a confirmation 
of the opinion quite recently put forward by O. Schmidt, that 
every part of the sponge-body which possesses an excurrent 
orifice (oscu/wm) is to be regarded as a distinct “‘ individual.” 
This ‘ true individual ”’ of the sponge-body I denominate, in 
accordance with my theory of individuality, a “ person ;” and 
every sponge-body that consists of two or more persons (7. e. 
that possesses two or more oscula) I denominate a “ stock ”’ or 
“ cormus.” The special limitation of these two ideas, which 
are rendered necessary by the peculiar conditions of indi- 
viduality of the sponges, I reserve for my monograph. There 
are consequently simple (solitary or monozoic) and compound 


and their Relationship to the Corals. 9 


(social or polyzoic) sponges. Of simple sponges or persons we 
have examples in Sycum and Ute among the calcareous sponges, 
Caminus among the bark sponges, and Huplectella among the 
siliceous sponges. On the other hand, Leucosolenia and Nardoa 
among the calcareous sponges, Huspongia among the horny 
sponges, and Spongilla among the siliceous forms are com- 
pound sponges or stocks. 

I do not, like most other authors, regard the characteristic 
canal-system of the sponges as something quite specific and 
peculiar to this class, an arrangement sud generis, but share in 
the opinion of Leuckart and Miklucho, that it is essentially 
homologous with the ceelenteric vascular system or gastrovas- 
cular apparatus of the corals and Hydromedusee—in fact, of 
all the Acalephz or nettle-animals. Indeed I am so thoroughly 
convinced of this homology that I (with Miklucho) designate 
the largest cavity into which that canal-system is dilated in 
the sponge-body, and which is usually called the excurrent 
tube or flue (caminus), as the stomach, or digestive cavity, and 
its outer orifice, which is usually called the excurrent orifice or 
osculum, as the buccal orifice or mouth. 

In opposition to this conception two objections especially 
will be urged—namely, in the first place, that there are sponges 
with no flue and osculum, and, secondly, that the direction of the 
flow of water in the sponge-body is not reconcilable with it. 
As regards the first objection, I think I can invalidate it by a 
simple reference to developmental history. The sponges with- 
out flue and without osculum are either primitive sponge-forms, 
whose ancestors had never attained to the differentiation of this 
central part of the canal-system, or they are retromorphosed 
forms whose ancestors have lost stomach and mouth by phy- 
letic degeneration. The latter stand in the same relation to 
the more highly developed sponges furnished with mouth and 
stomach as the Cestode worms to the Trematoda. The Cestoda 
(in consequence of their stronger adaptation to the parasitic 
mode of life) have also lost the intestine and mouth, which 
their trematodiform ancestors possessed. Most of the mouth- 
less sponges, such, especially, as the Clistosyca and Cophosyca 
among the Calcispongiz, are probably to be regarded as such 
retromorphosed, and not as originally astomatous forms ; and 
if their embryos, which are still unknown to us, actually ac- 
quire a mouth and stomach like the other sponge-embryos, this 
ontogenetic fact would most decidedly confirm our phylogenetic 
hypothesis. Sycocystis, the young form of which is provided 
with a mouth, while the mature form is astomatous, may even 
now be cited in its favour. 

The physiological conditions of the water-circulation in the 


10 M. E. Hiickel on the Organization of Sponges, 


sponge-body seem to constitute a more substantial objection to 
our interpretation. It is well known that generally (but not 
always!) the direction of the flow of the water which passes 
through the canal-system of the living sponge-body is as fol- 
lows :—The water flows in through very numerous and fine 
cuticular pores (the so-called ‘ incurrent apertures ”’); usually 
perceptible only by means of the microscope, and through 
these fine “ incurrent canals,” which often ramify and anasto- 
mose repeatedly, reaches a few larger canals, which finally 
open into the central ‘excurrent cavity” (our “ stomachal 
cavity’). From this the used water then escapes outwards 
with the useless solid particles through the “‘ excurrent orifice” 
(our ‘‘ mouth ’’). 

In the corals or Anthozoa, on the other hand, as also in the 
other Cnidz, the direction of the flow of the water which tra- 
verses the cavities of the body appears to be different, and in 
a certain sense opposed to the ordinary direction of the current 
in the sponges. ‘The water, which at the same time conveys 
the food into the body, is usually, in the Cnide and, especially, 
in the corals, taken up by the mouth, passes through this into 
the stomach, and hence into the other canals which traverse 
the body. ‘The part played in this process by the cutaneous 
pores of the corals is unfortunately still as good as unknown. 
These fine apertures in the skin, usually perceptible only 
through the microscope, through which the finest canals of the 
ccelenteric vascular system open outwards in the corals, just as 
in the sponges, have by no means attracted so much attention 
in the former as in the latter. Nay, they have scarcely even 
been compared! Whilst the greatest importance has been 
attached to the cutaneous pores of the sponges, those of the 
corals, although long known, have been almost universally ig- 
nored; and yet the two are evidently homologous, and of one 
and the same origin! Nay, it is even very possible (not to 
say probable) that through the skin of the corals, as through 
that of the sponges, respiratory currents of water constantly 
penetrate into the body by means of the cutaneous pores, and 
that these traverse the canals of the body-wall, and finally 
discharge themselves into the stomachal cavity. .The cuta- 
neous pores in the corals might then, just as much as in the 
sponges, be designated “ incurrent apertures.” 

So much, at any rate, is certain, that an essential morpho- 
logical difference does not exist between the nutrient vascular 
system of the sponges and corals. If we compare single, so- 
litary, perfectly developed persons of the two classes, e. g. 
Sycum and Actinia, we find in both a central cavity as the true 
principal part of the nutrient canal-system—a central cavity 


and their Relationship to the Corals. 11 


(flue or stomach) which opens outwards by a single large ori- 
fice (osculum or mouth). From this cavity canals issue in all 
directions, which traverse the body-wall, and finally open on 
their surface by the cutaneous pores. If, on the other hand, 
we compare a sponge-stock (e. g. Sycodendrum, Spongilla) and 
a coral-stock (e. g. Dendrophyllia, Gorgonia), we find in like 
manner, in both, a nutrient canal-system of the coenenchyma 
or ccenosoma, which places the cavities of the individual per- 
sons in communication with each other. 

The difference in the direction of the current of water which 
is usually admitted in the two classes is a matter of perfect 
indifference in this close morphological comparison. Even if 
this difference was really constant, general, and thoroughgoing, 
it would not be capable of invalidating our notion of the ho- 
mology of the canal-system in the body of the sponge and 
coral. The difference in the circulation of the nutrient stream 
of water in the two classes of animals would merely prove that 
no physiological comparison, no analogy, exists between the 
individual parts of the vascular system, but that this has 
rather been lost by adaptation to ditterent conditions of nutri- 
tion. But by this our morphological comparison of the corre- 
sponding parts, their homology, which we must ascribe to 
inheritance from common ancestors, is in no way affected. 
But when we have to grasp the true relation of affinity of two 
groups of animals, we must consider only their actual homo- 
logies, @. e. those similarities arising from common inheritance, 
which alone constitute the true guiding-star in every compara- 
tive exposition. On the other hand, we must leave entirely 
out of consideration the analogies which depend upon mere 
adaptation, because these are much better fitted to obscure 
and conceal than to illuminate and clear up this relation of 
affinity. 

But-it must be pointed out that this contrast in the direction 
of the current of water, which is almost universally assumed 
to occur in the vascular system of the sponges and corals, and 
regarded as without exception, is by no means an absolute 
and unfailing one. Miklucho has already shown that in a 
great many sponges the mouth or osculum by no means per- 
mits only the outflow, but also the inflow of water. I have 
repeatedly convinced myself, by my own observations, of the 
correctness of this assertion. Consequently the mouth in 
many sponges, just as in the corals, serves for both the recep- 
tion and expulsion of the water and the nutritive constituents 
contained in it. 

For the right understanding of these relations, those sponges 
which have no cutaneous pores at all, and in which the sole 


12 M. E. Hickel on the Organization of Sponges. 


aperture of the perfectly simple stomachal cavity is the osculum 
or mouth, are of peculiar importance. Such a sponge without 
cutaneous pores, and the entire ccelenteric canal-system of 
which consists, as in Hydra, of a perfectly simple stomachal 
cavity with a simple mouth-orifice, was believed by Miklucho 
to be presented in his G'wancha blanca. I have, however, by 
subsequent careful examination of the forms of Guancha col- 
lected by Miklucho himself and handed over to me, ascertained 
that this sponge possesses simple cutaneous pores. On the 
other hand, I have examined two microscopically small, but 
yet perfectly developed (7. e. ovigerous), calcareous sponges 
collected by me in Naples, in which there are actually no 
traces of cutaneous pores. The entire body of these most pri- 
mitive forms of Calcispongiz consists of an elongate rounded 
sac (stomach), with a single opening (mouth) on that extremity 
of the body which is opposite to the point of attachment. For 
this extremely interesting primitive form, which must evi- 
dently open the series of the Calcispongiz, I propose the name 
of Prosycum., 

But full light is thrown upon these, as upon all other organic 
relations, only by developmental history. The earliest young 
forms of the sponges, the ciliated embryos, which afterwards 
swarm about freely as larvee by means of their ciliary coat, dif- 
fuse this light in the most desirable manner. I have traced 
the ontogeny of these youngest forms (which were previously 
known among the Calcispongiz only in Sycum and Dunster- 
villia) in a number of quite distinct genera, and have by this 
means arrived at the following results, which in part confirm, 
and in part essentially enlarge, the existing observations on the 
ontogeny of the sponges. 

After the egg has been broken up, in consequence of the 
process of segmentation, into a spherical, mulberry-like aggre- 
gation of closely adpressed, homogeneous, naked spherical 
cells, the mulberry-like embryo, by stronger growth in one 
direction, acquires an ellipsoidal or oval form, and covers its 
surface with cilia. A small central cavity (stomach) is then 
produced in its interior ; this extends, and, breaking through 
at one pole of the longitudinal axis, acquires an aperture, the 
mouth. 

Either before the buccal orifice of the stomach is perforated, 
or at any rate soon afterwards, the free-swimming, ciliated 
larva of the calcareous sponges sinks to the bottom of the sea 
and attaches itself there. The point of adhesion is usually 
situated at the pole of the longitudinal axis which is opposite 
to the mouth (aboral pole). The body of the young sponge 
now forms a simple, elongate rounded, adherent sac, the cavity 


Mr. D. Sharp on the Atlantic Species of Philhydrus. 13 


of which communicates with the surrounding sea-water only 
by a single aperture, the mouth, placed opposite to the point 
of attachment. Jn this early young state, when it constitutes 
a simple cup-shaped body with solid walls and a simple aper- 
ture, the young sponge is not essentially different from a young 
coral which is still in the same early period of ontogenesis. 
But just as the common freshwater Polype (Hydra) presents 
persistently throughout life, in its simple sac-like body-cavity, 
a similar coelenteric primitive state to that which all corals pass 
through in their youth, so does this just-mentioned simplest 
calcareous sponge (Prosycum) remain throughout its life, until 
perfect maturity, in the same ccelenteric primitive state which 
the other calcareous sponges have to pass through rapidly in 
their earliest youth. Considering, now, that extremely impor- 
tant and intimate causal connexion which everywhere exists 
between ontogeny and phylogeny,—considering the morphoge- 
netic fundamental law, that the ontogeny (that is to say, the 
individual developmental history of the organism) constitutes 
a short and rapid (causally conditioned by the laws of inherit- 
ance and adaptation) repetition of its phylogeny, that is, of the 
paleontological developmental history of the ancestors of its 
entire stock,—considering this high phylogenetic signification 
of all ontogenetic states, we must, from these simple facts, from 
this ontogenetic concordance between the young states of the 
sponges and corals, draw the extremely important phylogenetic 
conclusion, that the sponges and corals are near blood-re- 
lations, whose origin is derived from one and the same ori- 
ginal common stock-form. This unknown stock-form, of 
whose special structure no fossil remains are preserved to us 
from the archolithic period of the earth’s history, but as to 
whose former existence we may conclude with perfect cer- 
tainty from the adduced facts, nay, of whose general form we 
have even still an approximate picture in Prosycum simplicis- 
simum!, must have possessed a simple cup-shaped body, with 
a single orifice placed opposite to its point of attachment. We 
will give this the name of the primitive sac, PROTASCUS. 
From this hypothetical Protascus probably originated, as two 
divergent branchlets, Prosycum (the stock-form of the Calci- 
spongiz) and Procorallum (the stock-form of the corals). 
[To be continued. | 


I1.—On the Species of the Genus Philhydrus found in the 
Atlantic Islands. By D. Suarp, M.B. 


WHEN engaged last spring in making an examination of our 
British Philhydri, and comparing them with the few speci- 


14 Mr. D. Sharp on the Species of Philhydrus 


mens in my possession of the same genus from other parts of 
the world, I was surprised to find, amongst some material 
which had been collected in the Canary Islands by the Messrs. 
Crotch, examples of the P. maritimus, Th., which in no way 
differed from our British individuals of that species. As the 
P. maritimus is not included in Mr. Wollaston’s ‘ Coleoptera 
Atlantidum,’ I communicated the fact in a letter to that 
gentleman ; and in return he kindly sent to me for examina- 
tion such specimens of Philhydrus trom the Madeiran, Cana- 
rian, and Cape-Verde archipelagos as were still accessible to 
him; and as we have found two species amongst them which 
are apparently undescribed, and have ascertained also that the 
one which he had regarded as the melanocephalus of Olivier is 
better identified with what I believe to be Kiister’s politus, 
found in Mediterranean latitudes, I have thought that it might 
not be amiss to call attention to the several species, collec- 
tively, which have hitherto been observed in those islands. I 
regret, however, that I have not sufficient examples before me 
to enable me in every case to decide positively whether certain 
forms should be treated as distinct species or not; and in order 
therefore to avoid encumbering the Atlantic Catalogue un- 
necessarily, I have regarded all such doubtful ones as varveties, 
and thus can distinguish with certainty but four species, which 
are as follows :— 


1. Philhydrus maritimus, Th., Sk. Col. ii. p. 96 (1860). 


The entirely pale upper surface of this species, as well as 
the stronger punctuation of its elytra, are characters amply 
sufficient to distinguish it at a glance from any of the fol- 
lowing. 

Inhabits the Canarian archipelago, a few examples of it 
having been found by the Messrs. Crotch in Gomera. 


2. Philhydrus politus, Kiist., Kaif. Eur. 18. 9 (1849). 


P. oblongo-ovalis, convexus, nitidus, niger, prothoracis elytrorumque 
marginibus fusco-testaceis, capite maculis duabus ante oculos, 
tarsis, antennis (clava excepta) palpisque rufo-testaceis, his arti- 
culo secundo basi infuscato ; prothorace crebre subtiliter punctato; 
elytris parce subtilius punctatis, seriebus tribus punctorum ma- 
jorum impressis. 

Long. fere 3 lin. 

Mas tarsorum unguiculis fere angulatim curvatis, basi dente valido 
instructis. 

Fem. tarsorum unguiculis basi dente minore instructis. 

Inhabits the Madeiran and Canarian archipelagos, the exact 
form defined above (which I have regarded as the type) having 


found in the Atlantic Islands. 15 


been met with by Mr. Wollaston in Teneriffe and Gomera, of 
the Canarian group, in the latter of which islands it was found 


likewise by Messrs. Gray and Crotch. 


Var. 3 paulo angustior, prothorace obsoletius punctato, palpis arti- 
culo secundo haud infuscato, tibiis piceo-rufis. Long. 23 lin. 


Inhabits the Canaries, the single example (before me) which 
I have described as the “ var. 8,” having been taken by Mr. 
Wollaston in Fuerteventura. 


Var. y supra fusco-testaceus, prothoracis limbo dilutiore, capite 
nigro maculis duabus magnis rufo-testaceis, palpis articulo se- 
cundo basi infuscato, tibiis tarsisque fusco-testaceis. Long. fere 
3 lin. 


Inhabits the Canaries, having, like the “ var. 8,” been found 
by Messrs. Wollaston and Gray in Fuerteventura. 


Var. 6 “var. y” similis, prothorace elytrisque magis infuscatis, palpis 
totis testaceis. Long. vix 23 lin. 

Inhabits the Madeiran archipelago, having been captured 
by Mr. Wollaston abundantly in the island of Porto Santo, 
where it swarms along the edges of the half-dried brackish 
streams. 

I hope I may prove correct in referring the type of this 
apparently variable species to the P. politus, Kiist. Kiister’s 
description, however, indicates the sculpture of the elytra as 
much more distinct than it would appear to be in the Atlantic 
examples before me. But I have, at any rate, Spanish ones 
from Carthagena (the very locality from which Kiister’s spe- 
cimens of P. politus were obtained) agreeing in every respect 
with the particular form from the Canary Isles which I have 
above regarded as the type of the species. 

A specimen of the “ var. 6”? was many years ago identified 
by Dr. Aubé as P. melanocephalus, Oliv., from which spe- 
cies nevertheless it is entirely distinct. On the strength, 
however, of this determination, Mr. Wollaston admitted P. 
melanocephalus into his list of Atlantic Coleoptera; but in 
reality we have no evidence as yet of its occurrence in any of 
those sub-African islands. The description of P. atlanticus, 
Blanchard, in ‘ Voy. au Pole sud,’ Zool., tome iv. p. 51 (A. D. 
1853), I am unable to refer with certainty to any species or 
variety at present before me ; but it is said to inhabit Teneriffe. 

I would also remark that it is not altogether impossible that 
some one (or perhaps more) of the forms which I have here 
treated as varieties of P. politus may prove eventually to be 
a distinct species. 


16 Mr. D. Sharp on the Atlantic Species of Philhydrus. 


3. Philhydrus Wollastoni, n. sp. 


P. subovalis, sat convexus, nitidus, piceo-niger, prothoracis elytrorum- 
que limbo dilutiore, capite maculis duabus parvis ante oculos, 
palpis antennarumque basi testaceis, pedibus piceo-rufis ; capite 
prothoraceque crebre subtiliter, elytris parcius obsoletiusque 
punctatis, his seriebus tribus punctorum majorum impressis. 

Long. 23 lin. 

Inhabits the Cape-Verde archipelago, having been found 
by Messrs. Wollaston and Gray in the islands of S. Antonio, 
S. Vicente, 8. Iago, and Brava—in the first of which it was 
met with likewise by Dr. H. Dohrn. 


Var. 8 paulo brevior et magis convexus, colore dilutiore, palpis 
paulo brevioribus et crassioribus. 


Found in §. Antonio, this very slightly different form 
being the one which is distinctive of that island. « 


Nearly as large as the northern P. melanocephalus, but 
darker and more uniform in colour, with its elytra sparingly 
and much more indistinctly punctured, and with the claws 
of its tarsi much smaller and scarcely differing in struc- 
ture in the two sexes,—in which last respect it resembles 
P. ovalis, Th., and marginellus, Fab., and differs decidedly 
from P. politus, Kiist., and maritimus, Th. 


4, Philhydrus hesperidum, n. sp. 

P. oblongo-ovalis, leviter convexus, nitidus, capite nigro, maculis 
duabus parvis ante oculos, antennarum basi palpisque testaceis, 
his apice summo subinfuscato; prothorace disco piceo-nigro, 
marginibus testaceis; elytris fusco-testaceis, parce obsoleteque 
punctatis, seriebus tribus punctorum majorum impressis ; pedibus 
piceis, tarsis dilutioribus. 

Long. 13-2 lin. 

Inhabits the Cape-Verde archipelago, having been detected 
by Messrs. Wollaston and Gray in 8. Antonio, 8. Vicente, 

S. Iago, and Brava. 


Closely allied in form and appearance to the European P. 
marginellus, but not quite so large as that species, and at once 
distinguishable from it by its very sparingly and obsoletely 
punctured elytra. It pretty closely resembles P. Wollas- 
tont; but its smaller size and more oblong form, as well as 
several differences in the details of its colour and punctation, 
will suffice to distinguish it. 


Dr. J. Lycett on a Byssiferous Fossil Trigonia. 17 


II.—On a Byssiferous Fossil 'Trigonia. 
By Joun Lycert, M.D. 


THE discovery of a byssal aperture in a fossil Zrigonia, in 
connexion with certain features which are presumed to have 
been physically connected with such a condition of existence, 
is a novelty in fossil zoology, and, as such, needs no apology, 
although the species was figured and partially described up- 
wards of twenty-eight years since. [allude to Trigonia cari- 
nata, Agassiz, found in the Lower Greensand of various French 
and English localities. The well-known memoir by Agassiz on 
the genus 77rigonia contains figures of this species represent- 
ing merely immature casts, in which the ornamentation of the 
surface is only very imperfectly indicated; and the description 
also accords with such an unsatisfactory condition. D’Orbigny, 
in his ‘ Paléontologie Frangaise,’ has given elaborate figures of 
a single perfect specimen of adult or nearly adult growth. 
Upon referring to plate 286 of the work last cited, we find a 
marvellously perfect example of 7. carinata, possessing all the 
usual sectional characters of the costate, remarkable more 
especially for the salient ornamentation of the area, with its 
large carine and intermediate costelle: these features, so 
beautiful in the earlier stage of its growth, disappear altogether 
in specimens that have attained to about half the dimensions 
of adult shells, and are replaced by irregular, large, rugose, 
transverse plications ; but in the figures of D’Orbigny we dis- 
cover nothing of this: the area retains its pristine ornamenta- 
tion unaltered to its ultimate stage of growth—a condition of 
existence which we may never expect to discover in any 
actual specimen. The same figures have no indication of a 
byssal aperture, and the cost have less than their real obli- 
quity. The author’s text is only a brief description of the 
jigures of the artist. 

The general figure of 7. carinata is remarkable as com- 
pared with examples of the genus generally; it is oblong 
or ovately oblong, much lengthened and narrow or inflated 
along its mesial portion, and has in fact much general resem- 
blance to Byssoarca. The byssal aperture is not large, and is 
placed at the anterior or antero-inferior border. An examina- 
tion of the lines of growth shows that this orifice was formed 
only when the valves approached to their adult condition. 
Specimens which exhibit the complete or uninjured outline of 
the valves are all of immature growth, and had not formed 
the byssal aperture. Valves of adult growth are found in a 
condition altogether different and in accordance with the al- 
tered habits of the mollusk: the lively bivalve, with its salta- 

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 4. Vol. v. 2 


18 Mr. T. V. Wollaston on the Coleoptera of St. Helena. 


tory motions, had then become sedentary, and lay moored to 
a rocky surface, or was partially buried in its sandy matrix ; 
in such a position its upper or more exposed surface consisted 
of the posteal half of the area; and this portion, either exposed 
or discovered by the motion of the excurrent and incurrent 
siphons, invariably became a prey to the marine flesh-eaters : 
a portion more or less large is always found broken away and 
removed, The whole general aspect of the adult valves ex- 
hibits that worn or abraded condition with which we are also 
familiar in Byssoarca, and doubtless resulted from similar 
causes in both instances. 

I hope to present faithfully executed figures of this byssi- 
ferous Zrigonia in a Monograph on the British Trigonias, 
now in preparation for the Paleontographical Society. 


IV.—On the Coleoptera of St. Helena. 
By T. VERNON WOLLASTON, M.A., F.L.S. 


{Concluded from vol. iv. p. 417. | 
Fam. 19. Anthribide. 
(Subfam. ARAOCERIDES. 


Linea transversa prothoracica basilaris, marginem ipsum ba- 
salem elevatum efficiens.) 


Genus 35. ARMOCERUS. 
Schénherr, Cure. Disp. Meth. 40 [script. Areecerus] (1826). 


52. Areocerus fasciculatus*. 


A. breviter ovalis, crassus, brunneo-piceus, pube brevi squameeformi 
demissa cinerea griseaque vestitus necnon in elytris plus minus 
obsoletissime (sc. in interstitiis alternis) longitudinaliter tessel- 
latus ; capite prothoraceque (subter pube) opacis, densissime et 
rugose punctatis, illo in medio tenuiter carinulato oculis maximis 
prominentibus, hoc subconico, postice lato bisinuato, costa trans- 
versa in marginem basalem coéunte necnon utrinque marginem 
lateralem (usque ad medium lateris ductum) efficiente, angulis 
posticis subrectis ; elytris apice truncato-rotundatis, (subter pube) 
subopacis, densissime et rugose granulatis ac leviter crenulato- 
striatis; antennis pedibusque elongatis et (preecipue illis) graci- 
libus, illis rufo-testaceis clava obscuriore, his rufo-ferrugineis, 
tarsorum art® 1™° longissimo. 

Long. corp. lin. 2-22. 

Curculio fasciculatus, De Geer, Ins. v. 276, t. 16, f. 2 (1775). 
Anthribus coffee, Fab., Syst. Eleuth. ii. 411 (1801). 

Two examples of an Areocerus, which were taken at St. 
Helena by Mr. Melliss, I feel almost confident are referable to 
the A. fasciculatus (which is usually known in collections as 
the coffee of Fabricius), though I have thought it desirable to 


Mr. T. V. Wollaston on the Coleoptera of St. Helena. 19 


give a careful diagnosis of them, in the event, perhaps, of 
their being identified hereafter with some cognate form. The 
insect, however, is evidently a variable one; and there are 
individuals in the British Museum, bearing the label “ coffee,” 
which seem in no way to differ from the pair now before me ; 
whilst the fact that the species (the larva of which appears to 
subsist within various seeds and berries which are used as 
articles of food) has become naturalized, through the medium 
of commerce, in most of the warmer countries of the civilized 
world would go far to render it probable that the St.-Helena - 
one is the true fasciculatus, and has been established in the 
island (as elsewhere) by indirect human agency. 

With the exception of the Notioxenus Bewickit, the present 
insect is considerably larger than any of the other members of 
the Anthribide hitherto detected in St. Helena; and, apart 
from the greatly elongated first joint of its feet, and the fact 
of its transverse prothoracic keel being removed to the extreme 
base (so as to form a mere elevated margin to the pronotum), 
and then produced, at right angles, to about midway along the 
lateral edge (characters which are more strictly generic ones), 
it may be further recognized by its compact thickened body 
and short-oval outline, and by its brownish piceous surface 
being clothed with an abbreviated, decumbent, scale-like, 
cinereous pubescence, the alternate elytral interstices having 
additionally more or less obsolete indications of being obscurely 
tessellated, which, however, is sometimes scarcely traceable. 
Its eyes are large and prominent, its antenne rufo-testaceous 
and extremely slender, and its surface, when the pubescence 
is removed, will be seen to be nearly opaque, and closely and 
coarsely sculptured. 


(Subfam. NoTIOXENIDES. 


Linea transversa prothoracica conspicue ante basin sita, utrin- 
: pe) 
que plus minus arcuata sed nullo modo per marginem late- 
ralem retrorsum ducta.) 


Genus 36. NOTIOXENUS. 
Wollaston, Journ. of Ent. 1. 212 (1861). 


Corpus vel oblongum vel ovato-oblongum, aut pubescenti-varie- 
gatum aut subglabrum, plus minus pictum: rostro brevi, triangulari, 
apice rotundato-truncato; oculis rotundatis, integris: prothorace 
subovato postice truncato, ante basin vel linea impressa vel (sepius) 
carinula elevata, utrinque plus minus leviter arcuata, transversim 
instructo: scutello minutissimo, egre observanda: elytris ovalibus 
(rarius ovatis) basi truncatis, postice subabbreviatis (pygidium vix 
tegentibus) necnon ad apicem ipsum singulatim paulo rotundatis. 
Antenne graciles, recte,in pagina superiore rostri (mox intra oculos 


O* 


20 Mr. T. V. Wollaston on the Coleoptera of St. Helena. 


in fovea) inserts; artis 1™° et 24° Jongiusculis (illo paulo robus- 
tiore curvato), 3te ad 8™™ longitudine subsqualibus, latitudine 
leviter crescentibus, reliquis clavam elongatam laxam sat abruptam 
pilosam 3-articulatam efficientibus (9° et 10™° intus obsolete sub- 
productis, ult™° subgloboso). Pedes breviusculi, subgraciles; tibis 
rectis, ad apicem muticis ; tarsis pseudotetrameris, art® 1™° quam 244s 
in anterioribus vix sed in posticis multo longiore, 24° paulo latiore, 
ad apicem leviter emarginato, 3t™ Jatiorem bilobum recipiente ; 
unguiculis appendiculatis. 

[ have thought it desirable to give a fresh (and slightly 
amended) diagnosis of this interesting genus, not merely on 
account of its extreme eccentricity, but because, in conjunction 
with Microxylobius, Nesiotes, and Trachyphleosoma, of the 
Curculionide, it is amongst the most characteristic and truly 
indigenous of the Coleopterous forms which have hitherto been 
detected in St. Helena. Indeed it is difficult to overrate the 
importance, in a small insular catalogue, of a group like the 
present one—combining as it does the structural features of the 
Anthribide with the external outline and aspect of the genuine 
Curculionids ; and I may add that the great specific dissimi- 
larity of the four representatives enunciated below induces me 
to suspect still (as I did in 1861, when only two of them had 
been brought to light) that there are many Notéowen7, of a 
more or less intermediate facies, yet to be discovered, and for 
which therefore we may confidently look. Apart from its 
singular Curculionideous contour, Notéoxrenus is remarkable 
amongst its immediate congeners for (more especially) its 
transverse prothoracic keel being considerably removed from 
the immediate base of the prothorax, and for being replaced in 
one of the species (the VN. Bewicki’, which I have nevertheless 
regarded as the type of the genus) by an impressed line. In 
both instances, however, the line (whether channel or keel) is 
more or less arcuate, or very gradually and slightly curved 
towards either side; but it is not produced at right angles, in 
any degree whatsoever, along the lateral edges of the pro- 
notum. The sculpture of the Notioxent varies greatly, accord- 
ing to the species; but they appear to be ornamented with 
(sometimes obscure) patches and bands, either on the surface 
itself or (more often) produced by the short and somewhat 
paler decumbent pubescence with which they are more or less 
clothed. Whether they possess any saltatory power (as in 
Areocerus) I have not yet been able to ascertain. 


§ 1. Linea prothoracica impressa, canaliculum efficiens. 
53. Nottoxenus Bewickit. 
J. fusco-niger, subopacus, impunctatus sed minutissime obsoleteque 


Mr. T. V. Woilaston on the Coleoptera of St. Helena. 21 


subrugulosus, pube brevi squameformi demissa grisea vestitus 
necnon hine inde cinereo-pictus ; capite distinctius ruguloso (fere 
etiam punctato), oculis magnis sed haud prominentibus ; pro- 
thorace linea subbasali utrinque regulariter subcurvata impresso 
plagisque 3 longitudinalibus, plus minus obsoletis, fractis, cinereo- 
squamosis picto; elytris argute impunctato-striatis, maculis mi- 
nutis plurimis cinereo-squamosis irroratis, ad basin et humeros 
interdum obsolete rufescentioribus; antennis gracilibus, rufo- 
testaceis, apicem versus infuscatis; pedibus fusco-piceis, genibus 
rufescentioribus, tarsis picescenti-testaceis. 
Long. corp. lin. circa 3. 
Notioxenus Bewickii, Woll., loc. cit, 218, pl. xiv. f. 1 (1861). 


A most remarkable species, differing from the other Notioxent 
hitherto detected not only in its much larger size and in its 
griseous-black, densely clothed surface, which appears to be 
obscurely ornamented with small and indistinct dull cinereous 
patches, but likewise (which is an extremely anomalous fea- 
ture) in its subbasal prothoracic line being ¢mpressed, imstead 
of raised. With the exception of the head, which is more 
coarsely sculptured, its surface is impunctate, though rather 
alutaceous and subopaque (as may be seen when the pubes- 
cence is removed); and its elytral strie are also perfectly 
simple. The only two examples of this Notdowenus which 
have yet come under my notice were taken—one, in 1860, 
by the late Mr. Bewicke (to whom the species is dedicated), 
“amongst native vegetation on the extreme summit of the 
island,’ and the other, more recently, by Mr. Melliss. 


§ I. Linea prothoracica elevata, carinulam efficiens. 


54. Notioxenus rufopictus. 


NV. ater, nitidus, subealvus (sc. pube brevi demissa fulvo-cinerea 
parcissime irroratus); capite prothoraceque sat rugulose punc- 
tatis, hujus linea subbasali elevata subrecta (i. e. utrinque vix 
curvata); elytris profunde crenato-striatis, interstitiis convexis, 
parce, minutissime et irregulariter punctulatis, maculis parvis 
plurimis (presertim ad basin et versus latera) rufis aut testaceo- 
rufis (plus minus confluentibus) ornatis; anteunis breviusculis, 
rufo-testaceis, apicem versus infuscatis; pedibus nigro-piceis, 
femoribus apicem versus genibusque rufescentioribus, tarsis pices- 
.centi-testaceis. 

Long. corp. lin. circa 13. 

Notioxenus rufopictus, W oll., loc. cit. 213, pl. xiv. f. 2 (1861). 


The only example of this beautiful Notioxenus which I have 
yet seen was captured by the late Mr. Bewicke, during his 
few hours’ collecting at St. Helena, on the 21st of July 1860, 
amongst native vegetation, on the extreme summit of the 


22. Mr. T. V. Wollaston on the Coleoptera of St. Helena. 


island. It is very much smaller than the last species, but 
rather larger than either of those which follow; and it may 
be further recognized by its black, shining, and comparatively 
unpubescent surface, by its strongly and closely punctured 
head and prothorax (the subbasal line of which is ravsed, as 
in the two following species, and hardly at all curved), and by 
the convex interstices, deep crenate striz, and numerous bright 
red patches of its nearly glabrous elytra. 


55. Notioxenus dimidiatus, n. sp. 


NV. subovatus, viridi- (immaturus piceo-) ceneus, nitidus, pube grossa 
demissa cinerea parce yestitus ; capite profunde rugoso-punctato ; 
prothorace in disco antico levius parciusque punctato, linea sub- 
basali subcurvata et valde elevata; elytris grosse striato-punc- 
tatis, punctis striisque (suturali profundiore basi evanescente ex- 
cepta) in dimidia parte postica evanescentibus, margine basali 
ipsissimo rugose elevato; antennis picescentibus, apicem versus 
pedibusque (tibiis versus basin rufescentioribus exceptis) nigres- 
centibus. 

Variat immaturus colore omnino pallidiore, etiam senescenti-ferru- 
gineo, elytrisque fascia media dentata obscura nigrescentiore 
ornatis. 

Long. corp. lin. 13-13. 

This species appears to be a little more ovate, and perhaps 
also (on the average) a trifle smaller, than the N. rufopictus ; 
and it is abundantly distinguished by its greenish-brassy, 
shining, and coarsely but sparingly pubescent surface, by its 
greatly elevated and evidently curved subbasal prothoracic 
line, and by the striz and largely developed punctures be- 
coming evanescent on the posterior half of its elytra. One of 
the two specimens now before me (and which were taken in 
St. Helena by Mr. Melliss) seems to be immature; for it is 
altogether paler (indeed well-nigh sneo-ferruginous), and 
there are indications on its elytra of an obscure, central, den- 
tate, blackish fascia, which the darker surface of the other 
example appears to render quite untraceable. 


56. Notioxenus alutaceus, n. sp. 


JV. viridi-eneus, subnitidus, alutaceus (sed haud punctatus), pube 
demissa fulvescente parce vestitus; prothoracis linea subbasali 
subcurvata elevata; elytris postice magis abbreviatis, striis (sutu- 
rali profunda basi evanescente excepta) obsoletis ; antennis piceis, 
basi rufo-testaceis; pedibus picescentibus, tibiis (tarsisque ad 
basin minus eyidenter) dilute rufo-testaceis. 

Long. corp. lin. vix 13. 


Judging from the single example now before me, and which 


Mr. T. V. Wollaston on the Coleoptera of St. Helena. 23 


was found in St. Helena by Mr. Melliss, this would seem to be 
the smallest of the true Notéorent hitherto brought to light ; 
and whilst it agrees with the last species in its somewhat 
brassy-green hue, it recedes from it totally in its unpunctured, 
alutaceous, and less shining surface, and from all the others 
here enumerated in its elytra (which are a good deal shortened 
behind) being free from striz, with the exception of a single 
deep one (evanescent anteriorly) on each alongside the suture. 


(Subfam. HomMaoperipDEs. 


Prothorax simplex, sc. linea transversa nulla instruetus.) 


Genus 37. Homaopera (nov. gen.). 


Corpus et instrumenta cibaria fere ut in Notioweno, sed antenne 
aperte remotius ab oculis inserts, prothorawv simplex (nec linea 
basali instructus), atque articulus primus tarsorum posticorum minus 
elongatus. 


Ab épotos, similis, et d€py, thorax. 


The prima facie aspect of the three species described below 
is so much that of the smaller Notéoxend (the N. dimidiatus 
and alutaceus) that I had at first imagined them actually to 
belong to the same genus; but a more careful inspection will 
show that they have certain peculiarities which, although in- 
significant perhaps in other families, are of primary import- 
ance amongst the Anthribide, and which necessitate the es- 
tablishment of a special group for their reception. Thus, they 
have no appearance whatsoever of a transverse line either be- 
fore or at the extreme base of their prothorax (a structure of 
peculiar significance in the Anthribids) ; their antenne also 
are implanted distinctly further from the eyes than is the case 
in Notioxenus (where the scrobs absolutely adjoins the anterior 
margin); and the first joint of their two hinder feet is less 
elongated. In their more or less faintly metallic, sparingly 
pubescent, and sculptured surfaces they have much the ap- 
pearance of minute Notioxent. 


57. Homeodera rotundipennis, n. sp. 


H. subovata, nigra, in elytris subeenescens, pube grossa demissa 
fulvescente parce nebulosa; capite prothoraceque subrugose stri- 
guloso-(vel etiam subreticulato-) alutaceis sed vix punctatis, 
opacis; elytris subrotundatis basi truncatis sed pone medium 
paulo latioribus, obsolete subseneo-micantibus, grosse et profunde 
striato-punctatis, punctis magnis, interstitiis rugosis et subcostato- 


24 Mr. T. V. Wollaston on the Coleoptera of St. Helena. 


elevatis, ante apicem obsolete subfasciatis; antennis pedibusque 

nigro-piceis, illis ad basin rufo-ferrugineis. 
Long. corp. lin. 14. 

The apparently somewhat larger size (judging from the 
single example now before me) of this little Homaodera, added 
to its slightly darker and more opaque and roughened head 
and prothorax (which seem to be free from even an obscure 
brassy tinge, and are rather more substrigulose perhaps, or 
even granulous, than punctate), its more rounded and coarsely 
sculptured elytra (the punctures and striz of which are exceed- 
ingly large, with the interstices roughened and elevated, or 
subcostate), and its appreciably blacker limbs, will sufficiently 
distinguish it from both of the following species. The ex- 
ample from which my diagnosis has been drawn out was 


taken in St. Helena by Mr, Melliss. 


58. Homeodera alutaceicollis, n. sp. 


H. suboblonga, subseneo-nigra, pube grossa demissa fulvescente parce 
nebulosa; capite prothoraceque argute, regulariter, et obtuse 
alutaceis (necnon, oculo fortissime armato, punctis levissimis 
obsoletis remotis parcissime irroratis), subopacis ; elytris ovalibus, 
nitidioribus, argute striato-punctatis, ante apicem plerumque ob- 
solete subfasciatis; antennis pedibusque aut piceis aut testaceo- 
piceis, illis ad basin rufo-ferrugineis, articulis intermediis sensim 
brevioribus. 

Long. corp. lin. 1-14. 

The present species and the following one are rather more 
oblong than the H. rotundipennis, their elytra being relatively 
a trifle longer and less rounded; but in point of mere size 
(although apparently there is not much difference between 
them) they would seem to follow each other in a regular se- 
quence. In other respects the //. alutaceicollis may be known 
by its head and prothorax being conspicuously (but not 
roughly) alutaceous, which makes the surface subopaque 
without being at all roughened, and gives to it, when viewed 
beneath the microscope, the texture somewhat of seal-skin ; 
and by its elytra being sharply striate-punctate, but rather 
less coarsely (and roughly) so than is the case in either of its 
allies. Several examples of it are amongst the St.-Helena 
collection of Mr, Melliss. ; 


59. Homeodera pygmea, n. sp. 


H. suboblonga, subseneo- vel subviridi-nigra, parum nitida, pube 
grossa demissa fulvescente parce nebulosa; capite prothoraceque 
rugulose alutaceis punctisque magnis. sed vix profundis dense 


Mr. T. V. Wollaston on the Coleoptera of St. Helena. 25 


obsitis; elytris ovalibus, rugose punctato-striatis, interstitiis 

rugosis ac parum elevatis, ante apicem plerumque obsolete sub- 

fasciatis ; antennis pedibusque fere ut in specie precedente. 
Long. corp. lin. ?-1. 

The few examples which I have yet seen of this Homeodera 
were, like those of the last, collected by Mr. Melliss. It is 
apparently a trifle smaller, on the average, than the HZ. aluta- 
ceicollis, to which, however, in its somewhat oblong outline 
and general facies it is closely allied. It may nevertheless be 
recognized from both of the preceding species by its head and 
prothorax being a little less opaque (or nearly as shining as 
the elytra), and densely studded with large but not particularly 
deep punctures. Its elytral sculpture is appreciably coarser 
and rougher than that of alutacedcollis, but not so coarse as 
in rotundipennis. 


Fam. 20. Bruchide. 


Genus 38. BRUCHUS. 
Geofiroy, Ins. de Paris, i. 163 (1762). 


60. Bruchus rufo-brunneus, n. sp. ? 

B. subquadrato-ovatus, rufo-brunnens, elytris clarioribus, subtus 
dense cinereo, supra ineequaliter fulvescente et cinereo piloso- 
variegatus, antennis pedibusque piceo-testaceis, illis versus apicem 
(saltem in sexu masculo) pedibusque posticis paulo obscurioribus ; 
capite prothoraceque conico dense ruguloso-punctatis, illo fortiter 
carinato, hoc in parte media basali macula subquadrata sub- 
bipartita cinerea notato; elytris profunde striatis, interstitiis ru- 
gulosis convexis, fasciis 3 obsoletissimis nigrescentibus (interdum 
cinereo terminatis) intus valde abbreviatis seepius obscure nebu- 
loso ornatis; femoribus posticis denticulis duobus contiguis (e 
marginibus externo et interno surgentibus) subtus armatis, tibiis 
posticis ad angulos apicales internos spinis duabus ineequalibus 
(una sc., preesertim in sexu masculo, elongata robusta) terminatis. 

Mas antennis multo longioribus, paulo crassioribus, ac intus longe 
pectinatis ; pedibus anterioribus etiam subgracilioribus longiori- 
busque. 

Long. corp. lin. cirea 13. 

It is with the greatest reluctance that J venture to describe 
as new several examples of a Bruchus which are now before 
me, and which were captured by Mr. Melliss at St. Helena, 
because such a vast majority of the Bruch? hitherto known 
are so peculiarly liable to accidental importation throughout the 
civilized world, along with various seeds and fruits, that I cannot 
but feel it probable that.the one now under consideration may 
have been found in or about the houses and stores, and may 


26 Mr. T. V. Wollaston on the Coleoptera of St. Helena. 


be well known (and perhaps even recorded) for some other 
tropical country. Yet, as I have been unable to identify it 
with any of the numerous species to which I have had access, 
I think it better to run the risk of its having been already 
described than to omit it altogether from the present catalogue. 

The main features of this Bruchus seem to consist in its 
reddish-brown hue, the elytra, however, being more pale and 
rufescent than the head and prothorax; in the latter being 
dappled with cinereous scales, which are concentrated into a 
squarish central bipartite patch in the middle (behind the 
scutellum), and sometimes apparently into two obsolete and 
fragmentary (or broken-up) oblique bands; in its head being 
powerfully keeled; in its elytra being deeply striate (with the 
interstices convex), and lkewise ornamented (in unrubbed 
specimens) with rudimentary bands or fasciz, on either side, 
composed, in examples which are highly coloured, of darkish 
cloudy patches with a few ashy scales between ; in the antennee 
of the male being very much longer than those of the female, 
and deeply pectinated internally; and in its two posterior 
femora being armed beneath with two small denticles, along- 
side each other and arising out of the inner and outer edges 
respectively—whilst the two inner angles of its two hinder 
tibie are each terminated by a spine, one of which (particu- 
larly in the male sex) is robust and elongated. 


61. Bruchus advena, n. sp.? 

B. fere ut species preecedens, sed paulo angustior ac sensim magis 
ellipticus (pygidio minus perpendiculari), capite minus evidenter 
carinato, prothorace sensim profundius punctato, elytris clarius 
rufescentibus letiusque pictis, multo magis tenuiter leviusque 
subcrenulato-striatis, interstitiis valde depressis (nec convexis), 
antennis brevioribus, femoribusque posticis omnino simplicibus 
(nec subtus denticulatis) et spinis terminalibus minus robustis. 

Long. corp. lin. 13. 

Although with much the same colouring, and primé facie 
aspect, as the last species, it is quite impossible to identify with 
it the single example from which the above diagnosis has 
been drawn out—though I feel it extremely likely that both 
of them are natives of the same country (wheresoever that 
may be), and may perhaps have become naturalized, through 
the medium of commerce, in the stores and granaries of St. 
Helena. The specimen before me (which was captured by 
Mr. Melliss) appears to be a female one, so that I am unable 
to decide whether there are any particular features (of anten- 
ne &c.) to distinguish the opposite sex; but, judging from 
this individual, the species is a trifle narrower and more 


Mr. 'T. V. Wollaston on the Coleoptera of St. Helena. 27 


elliptic than the B. rufobrunneus (its pygidium being less 
perpendicularly decurved), with its head less evidently keeled, 
its antenne shorter and more compact, its prothorax rather 
more deeply punctured, and with its elytra not only of a redder 
tint and more conspicuously marked, but also very much more 
finely and lightly striated, and considerably flatter in the in- 
terstices. The terminal spines of its two hinder tibiz also are 
less developed, and its hinder femora are entirely free from all 
traces of the two small denticles which characterize its ally. 


Fam. 21. Halticida. 


Genus 39. LONGITARSUS. 
Latreille, Fam. Nat. 405 (1825). 


62. Longitarsus Helene. 


L. oblongo-ovatus, seneo-viridis, subnitidus, alutaceus; capite im- 
punctato; prothorace punctulis levibus minutis parce irrorato, 
ante medium latiusculo, postice paulo angustiore, angulis posticis 
obtusis ; elytris profundius punctatis; antennis pedibusque lon- 
gissimis, rufo-testaceis, illis versus apicem femoribusque posticis 
vix obscurioribus. 

Mas {an quoque foom.?] tarsis anterioribus art® 1™° magno, valde 
dilatato. 

Long. corp. lin. 1. 


Longitarsus Helene, Woll., Journ. of Ent. i. 214 (1861). 


A single example of this distinct Longitarsus was taken in 
St. Helena by Mr. Bewicke, in 1860; and two more have 
lately been communicated by Mr. Melliss. It may easily be 
known by its alutaceous surface and brassy-green hue, by its 
pale elongated limbs, and by the largely developed joint of the 
four anterior feet of the male. Its head appears to be quite 
unpunctured, and its prothorax sparingly sprinkled with punc- 
tules which are extremely minute, whilst its elytra are rather 
strongly punctate *. 


* Whether any Cryptocephalus or Clythra occurs in St. Helena I can- 
not say ; but I may call attention, in this part of my catalogue, to the 
Cryptocephalus ruficollis of Fabricius, which was originally described by 
him (Syst. Ent. 109) in 1775 from a St.-Helena specimen (or specimens) 
in the collection of Sir Joseph Banks. Judging from his own publications, 
he seems to have fallen into some unaccountable mistake (or even mis- 
representation) regarding this species, which he had himself first defined, 
and ultimately to have shifted his diagnosis to a Mediterranean insect 
which in all probability is totally distinct from the St.-Helena one; for, 
in 1792 (vide Ent. Syst. i. ii. 61), he added to his original description, and 

ave as the habitat not only St. Helena, but (on the authority of Prof. 
elwig) Italy!! In 1798 (vede Suppl. 114, of the Ent. Syst.) he appears 


28 Mr. T. V. Wollaston on the Coleoptera of St. Helena. 


Fam. 22. Cassidide. 


Genus 40. ASPIDOMORPHA. 


Hope, Col. Man. (1840). 
63. Aspidomorpha miliaris. 

A, “flava, thorace immaculato, elytris nigro punctatis: margine 
bifasciato. Habitat in ins. St. Helene. Mus. Dom. Banks. 
Statura C. marginate. Antenne flave, apice nigra. Thoracis 
clypeus rotundatus, integer, immaculatus. LElytra leevia, flava, 
punctis circiter 10 nigris sparsis. Margo uti in reliquis dilatatus 
fasciis duabus, altera ad basin, altera versus apicem, nigris. Su- 
tura apice nigra. Subtus nigra, margine flavescente. Pedes 
flavi.” [Ex Fabricio. | : 

Cassida miliaris, Fab., Syst. Ent. 91 (1775). 

, Oliv., Encyel. Méth. v. 385 (1791). 

—— ——,, Id., Ent. vi. 943. 33, t. 2. £, 25 (1808). 

—— — , Fab., Ent. Syst. i. 800 (1792). 

, Id., Syst. Eleuth. i, 400 (1801). 
Aspidomorpha miliaris ?, Bohem., Mon. Cass. ii. 261 (1854). 


I know nothing of the present insect beyond the mere fact 
of the above quotation from Fabricius ; but as the species is 
stated plainly to have come from St. Helena, and to be in the 
Banksian collection, I can see no reason for doubting its ha- 
bitat, particularly since other Coleoptera belonging to the late 
Sir Joseph Banks were unquestionably (as in the case of the 
Cydonia lunata) received from the same island. I therefore 
conclude that there is some member of the Cassidide to be 


to have discovered that the insect was a Clythra, and cited it accordingly, 
though whether this conclusion was arrived at after a re-examination of 
the original St.-Helena example, or merely of those from southern Europe, 
it is impossible now to tell; ba in any case it is quite clear that his first 
description applied to the St.-Helena one, and not to that from Italy. 
Having thus, however, altered his diagnosis so as to make it tally with 
the Italian species, he appears to have lost sight of the original St.-Helena 
type altogether ; for in the Syst. Eleuth. (ii. 38) he still refers ¢o his former 
volumes, but records southern Europe as the only habitat for his “ Clythra 
ruficollis,” omitting even a passing allusion to St. Helena!! After this 
admission of his own, it is not surprising that European naturalists should 
have accepted, on his authority, the name of ruficollis (although applied 
at first to a St.-Helena species) for the Mediterranean insect ; and accord- 
ingly every subsequent writer, including even Lacordaire (Mon. des Phy- 
toph. ii. 100), has so done; and yet it seems to me to be more than 
doubtful whether the well-known Clythra (or Macrolenes) rujficollis of 
southern Europe ¢s in reality identical with Fabricius’s original “ Crypto- 
cephalus ruficollis” (despite his own subsequent representation) from St. 
Helena. If it should prove ultimately that the two are different, it fol- 
lows of necessity that the title “rwficollis” (whatsoever the genus may 
be) will have to apply to the insect from that island, and that the Euro- 
pean one must receive a new name. 


Mr. T. V. Wollaston on the Coleoptera of St. Helena. 29 


found in St. Helena, answering to the Fabrician diagnosis, 
which has escaped detection in more recent times; and my 
reason for regarding it as an Aspidomorpha (a genus which 
occurs in western Africa and the Cape-Verde archipelago) is 
simply because Boheman, in his Monograph of the family, 
cites the Casstda miliaris of Fabricius as a member of that 
particular genus. Yet, on the other hand, Boheman does not 
acknowledge the species which he has identified with the 
Fabrician one as a native of St. Helena at all, but, rather, of 
the East Indies, Java, Celebes, China, and the Philippine 
Islands, which at once raises a geographical difficulty which 
it is not easy to solve. But, as there appears no cause (in the 
absence of any kind of explanation by Boheman) for assuming 
the originally asserted habitat, of Fabricius, to be incorrect, I 
prefer the contrary conclusion, and should be inclined to think 
that Boheman may himself have been mistaken in identifying 
a Cassida of Eastern Asia with one (perhaps closely allied) 
from St. Helena. At any rate, as I have no evidence (beyond 
the tacit assumption of Boheman) that Fabricius and Sir 
Joseph Banks were alike in error concerning the country from 
which the original C. miliaris was received, I have no choice 
but to iclude the species in the present memoir, 


Fam. 23. Coccinellide. 


Genus 41. Cyponra. 
Mulsant, Sécurip. 430 (1851). 


64. Cydonia lunata. 


Coccinella lunata, Fab., Syst. Ent. 86 (1775). 
,Id., Syst. Eleuth, i. 384 (1801). 
Cydonia lunata, Muls., Sécurip. 431 (1851). 

, Woll., Journ. of Ent. i. 214 (1861). 

This curiously and prettily marked Coccinellid appears to 
be common in St. Helena, where it has been taken abundantly 
by Mr. Melliss and previously also by Mr. Bewicke and others. 
Indeed, although with a wide geographical range (it having 
been recorded from Senegal, the Cape of Good Hope, Caffraria, 
Madagascar, the islands of Bourbon and Mauritius, the East 
Indies and Java), it was originally described by Fabricius (in 
1775) from St.-Helena specimens, now in the Banksian col- 
lection; and therefore, whatever doubt may be entertained as 
to the claim for specific separation of some of the extreme 
states which have been ascribed to it, there can at least be no 
question about the St.-Helena form, which must of necessity 
be looked upon as the typical one. 


30 Mr. T.V. Wollaston on the Coleoptera of St. Helena. 


Genus 42. EPILACHNA. 
Chevrolat, Dict. Univ. d’Hist. Nat. iv. 43 (1844). 


65. Epilachna chrysomelina. 

E. “ coleopteris rufis: punctis duodecim nigris, thorace immaculato. 
Habitat in ins. St. Helene. Mus. Dom. Banks. Major, Caput 
et thorax rubra, immaculata, margine paullo pallidiora, Elytra 
rufa, punctis sex nigris per paria distributis. Pedes flavescentes.” 
[Ex Fabricio. | 

Coccinella chrysomelina, Fab., Syst. Ent. 82 (1775). 

capensis, Thunb., Nov. Ins. Spec. i. 16, tab. 1. f. 21 (1781). 

chrysomelina, Fab., Ent. Syst. i. 278 (1792). 

, Id., Syst. Eleuth. i. 368 (1801). 

Epilachna chrysomelina, Muls., Sécurip. 793 (1851). 

Although I have never seen a St.-Helena example of the 
Mediterranean LE. chrysomelina, I can scarcely refuse it a place 
in the present memoir, inasmuch as it was originally described 
by Fabricius, in 1775 [vide the above diagnosis], from an ex- 
ample, or examples, in the collection of Sir Joseph Banks, 
which had been obtained in that island. Indeed, as it appears 
to occur also at the Cape of Good Hope, and Fabricius himself 
in 1792 cites as its habitat “in Cacto opuntio Africe,” there 
is no reason for doubting that the Banksian type was truly 
(as stated) a St.-Helena one, though it is of course highly 
probable that the species may have been introduced acciden- 
tally into the island, perhaps along with plants of the Cactus 
opuntia (or “ prickly pear”’), and so have become naturalized. 
It is recorded likewise in the north of Africa; but it has not 
yet been observed in any of the Atlantic archipelagos. 


Fam. 24. Opatride. 


Genus 43. OPATRUM. 
Fabricius, Syst. Ent. 76 (1775). 


66. Opatrum hadroides. 


O. oblongum, latiusculum, nigrum, opacum, ubique granulato- 
rugulosum, breviter fulvescenti-pubescens ; capite lato, ad latera 
ante oculos subrotundato-ampliato; prothorace brevi, ad latera 
subsequaliter leviter rotundato, angulis anticis acutiusculis, pos- 
ticis acutis sed haud longe productis; elytris parallelis (ad hu- 
meros rectangulis), subpunctato-striatis, interstitiis subconvexis. 

Long. corp. lin. 34-5. 

Opatrum hadroides, Woll., Journ. of Ent. i. 215 (1861). 


The present Opatrum, like most of the allied species in the 
various Atlantic archipelagos, appears to abound in St. Helena, 
where it was taken by the late Mr. Bewicke in 1860, and 


Mr. T. V. Wollaston on the Coleoptera of St. Helena. 31 


where, according to Mr. Melliss, it is often peculiarly grega- 
rious in cultivated spots, especially the potato-grounds. When 
publishing my diagnosis of it in 1861, I stated that “ although 
unwilling to erect a new species in such an extensive and ob- 
scure genus as Opatrum, yet, after a careful comparison of the 
insect under consideration with a long series of Atlantic forms 
(from Madeira, the Canaries, the Cape Verdes, and the Cape 
of Good Hope), I am induced to do so in this instance, since 
the remoteness of its island habitat renders it probable that it 
will be found to be peculiar to St. Helena. The whole of the 
winged Opatra (i.e. the Gonocephala of Solier) are moulded 
so nearly on the same type, that small differences which might 
be disregarded in many groups become important with them ; 
and, after a close examination, I am convinced that there are 
no characters so much to be depended upon as the exact form 
of the gene, or dilated sides of the head immediately in front 
of the eyes, and the relative depth of the emargination (in- 
volving the greater or less acuteness of the anterior angles) of 
the prothorax. The O. hadroides is very nearly akin to a 
species which was taken by Mr. Bewicke at the Cape of Good 
Hope; but it is altogether rather larger, broader, and more 
parallel, its head is a little wider, with the gene more rounded, 
its prothorax is less deeply scooped-out in front, with the an- 
terior angles consequently less porrect and more obtuse, the 
hinder angles also are somewhat less produced, and its shoul- 
ders are more rectangular. Although narrower and on a 
smaller scale, it has a slight prima facie resemblance, in ge- 
neral contour, to the more parallel-sided Hadri of the Madeiran 
group—a circumstance which has suggested its trivial name.” 


Fam. 25. Ulomide. 


Genus 44. ALPHITOBIUS. 
Stephens, Il. Brit. Ent. v. 11 (1832). 


67. Alphitobius diaperinus*. 
Tenebrio diaperinus, Kugel., in Pnz. Fna Ins. Germ. 37. 16 (1797). 
Alphitobius diaperinus, Woll., Col. Atl. 419 (1865). 
, Id., Col. Hesp. 208 (1867). 

Judging from the specimens which were taken by Mr. Mel- 
liss, the widely spread A. diaperinus has become established 
in St. Helena, as is the case with it in the Madeiras, Canaries, 
Cape-Verdes, and Ascension, and indeed throughout the greater 
portion of the civilized world; but I need scarcely add that it 


32. Mr. T. V. Wollaston on the Coleoptera of St. Helena. 


is no more connected, in reality, with our present fauna than 
it is with that of any other country where it has in like man- 
ner been introduced through the medium of commerce. 


68. Alphitobius piceus*. 
Tenebrio mauritanicus, Fab. [nec L., 1767], Ent. Syst. i. 118 (1792). 
Helops piceus, Oliv., Ent. iii. 58. 17. 22 (1795). 
Tenebrio fagi, Pnz., Fna Ins. Germ. 61. 3 (1799). 
Alphitobius piceus, Woll., Col. Atl. 419 (1865). 
, Id., Col. Hesp. 208 (1867). 

Likewise obtained by Mr. Melliss in St. Helena, but, of 
course (as in the case of the preceding species), naturalized 
through the medium of commerce. It has been established 
equally in the Azores, Madeiras, Canaries, Cape-Verdes, and 
in Ascension, in which last-mentioned island it was found, in 
company with the A. diaperinus, by the late Mr. Bewicke, not 
in houses and amongst farinaceous substances, as we should 
have expected, but ‘in the dung of sea-birds, miles from 
habitable parts,” which is undoubtedly a singular habit for 
these common and almost cosmopolitan insects to have ac- 
quired. 

A. piceus may be known from diaperinus by being a 
trifle narrower and less shining, by its prothorax being re- 
latively a little broader, rounder (and more margined) at the 
sides, somewhat more thickly punctured, and with the hinder 
angles more acute, by the punctures of its elytral interstices 
being larger and more numerous, and by its tibie being ap- 
preciably less widened, and almost free from (even minute) 
spinules. Moreover it scarcely attains quite so large a sta- 
ture as its ally. 


Genus 45. GNATHOCERUS. 
Thunberg, Act. Holmiens. 47 (1814). 


69. Gnathocerus cornutus*. 


Trogosita cornuta, Fab., Ent. Syst. (Suppl.) 51 (1798). 
Cerandria cornuta, Woll., Ins. Mad. 490 (1854). 
Gnathocerus cornutus, Id., Col. Atl. 420 (1865). 

, Id., Col. Hesp. 204 (1867). 


Like the last two species, and the two which follow, the 
almost cosmopolitan G. cornutus has (judging from examples 
now before me, which were captured by Mr. Melliss) become 
established in St. Helena, where, no doubt, it must occur, 
amongst farinaceous and other substances, in and about the 
houses and stores. It has in like manner been introduced (of 


Mr. T. V. Wollaston on the Coleoptera of St. Helena. 33 


course through the medium of commerce) in the Madeiras, 
Canaries, Cape-Verdes, and Ascension. 


Genus 46. TRIBOLIUM. 
MacLeay, Annul. Javan. 47 (1825). 


70. Tribolium ferrugineum*. 


Tenebrio ferrugineus, Fab., Spec. Ins. i, 824 (1781). 
Tribolium ferrugineum, Woll., Col. Atl. 420 (1865). 
, Id., Col. Hesp. 204 (1867). 


There is hardly any Coleopterous insect more liable to acci- 
dental introduction, along with numerous articles of food and 
commerce, into the various countries of the civilized world 
than the present one; and it is not surprising, therefore, that 
it should have been found by Mr. Melliss, together with other 
species of similar habits, in St. Helena. It has become esta- 
blished, in like manner, in the Azorean, Madeiran, Canarian, 


and Cape-Verde archipelagos. 


Fam. 26. Tenebrionide. 


Genus 47. TENEBRIO. 
Linnzus, Syst. Nat. edit. 6 (1748). 


71. Tenebrio obscurus*. 


Tenebrio obscurus, Fab., Ent. Syst. i. 111 (1792). 
, Woll., Col. Atl. 424 (1865). 

The common Tenebrio obscurus has become naturalized in 
the houses and granaries of St. Helena, where it was taken 
abundantly by Mr. Melliss. It would seem to have acquired 
a more southern range, on the whole, than 7. molitor; for 
while it has been established almost universally through- 
out the Azorean, Madeiran, and Canarian archipelagos, 7° 
molitor, on the contrary, I have never yet fallen in with in 
any of them—two examples, which were captured in Madeira, 
many years ago, by the late Dr. Heineken, supplying the 
only instance, so far as I am aware, of its occurrence in the 
Atlantic groups. 


Genus 48. ZOPHOBAS. 
(Dejean) Blanch., Hist. Nat. des Ins. i. 15 (1840). 


72. Zophobas concolor, n. sp. 


Z. subparallelo-elongatus, niger (concolor), subnitidus sed interdum 
hinc inde quasi nebuloso-subopacus, calvus, alatus ; capite antice 


Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 4. Vol. v. 


34 Mr. T. V. Wollaston on the Coleoptera of St. Helena. 


_ parce sed postice etiam parcius grossiusque punctato, utrinque 
intra angulos frontales foveola minuta impresso; prothorace 
transverso-subquadrato, antice paulo latiore et leviter rotundato, 
angulis anticis rotundate obtusis, posticis subproducte acutius- 
culis, sensim marginato, convexo, in disco punctis magnis remotis 
parcissime irrorato, postice in medio transversim impresso, necnon 
utrinque ad basin ipsissimam foveola parva brevi notato ; elytris 
prothorace paulo latioribus, postice regulariter leniterque attenu- 
atis, grosse punctato-sulcatis; antennis pedibusque longiusculis, 
in utroque sexu similibus eequalibus. 

Mas, vix minor, clypeo antice profunde arcuato-emarginato, tibiis 
anticis intus omnino calyis, posterioribus versus apicem paululum 
fulvo-pubescentibus. 

Feem., vix major, clypeo antice recte truncato, tibiis intus versus 
apicem (prasertim anticis) breviter fulvo-pubescentibus. 

Long. corp. lin, 93-10. 

Judging from the very short and imperfect ‘ diagnosis ”’ (so 
called) of Fabricius, this large and uniformly black Tenebrionid 
might possibly agree with his Helops morio from the West 
Indies and other parts of Equatorial America; but I think 
that its sexual peculiarities do not tally with what little I can 
gather elsewhere about those of that species ; for there seems 
to be no difference in the relative length of the limbs, and 
curvature of the tibiee, between the males and females of the 
insect from St. Helena. Yet, as in some of the other recorded 
members of this singular group, there is the strange dissimi- 
larity in the form of the clypeus (which is straightly truncate 
in the females, but deeply scooped-out in the opposite sex), as 
well as the perfect freedom from hairs of the front male tibie, 
whilst the female ones are (like the four hinder ones of that 
sex) furnished internally, towards their apex, with a short 
fulvescent pile. Were it not for the greater length of its 
limbs (particularly the antenne), the present insect, in its 
comparatively narrow elongated outline, and general contour, 
would have much the primd@ facie aspect of a large Tenebrio ; 
and it may be further recognized by its deep-black surface 
being somewhat dulled, or clouded, in parts (especially to- 
wards the sides and behind), as though by a kind of bloom, 
by its prothorax being simply besprinkled on the disk with a 
few large and remote punctures, and by its elytra (which are 
gradually attenuated towards the apex) being regularly and 
coarsely punctate-sulcate. Its head is branded with a little 
foveolet on either side in front, just within the angle of the 
clypeus; and its prothorax (which is transversely impressed 
across the greater portion of its base) has a somewhat similar 
one, and almost equally minute, adjoining the extreme mar- 
gin, at either end of the transverse impression. 


Mr. T. V. Wollaston on the Coleoptera of St. Helena. 35 


The two examples from which the above diagnosis has 
been compiled were taken in St. Helena by Mr. Melliss; but 
whether the species has been naturalized accidentally from 
America, and occurs’ only about the houses and cultivated 
spots, or whether it may have all the appearance in situ of 
being truly indigenous, my ignorance of the circumstances 
under which the specimens were captured forbids me to con- 
jecture. 


Fam. 27. Mordellide. 
Genus 49. MorpELLA. 
Linneus, Syst. Nat. edit. i. 420 (1758). 


73. Mordella Mellissiana, n. sp. 


M. angusto-elliptica, supra arcuata, rufo-brunnea (rarius nigro- 
brunnea) et pube fulvescente valde demissa dense sericata ; capite 
subsemicirculari, deflexo, oculis magnis; prothorace subconico, 
basi bisinuato ; scutello minuto; elytris regulariter versus apicem 
attenuatis, apice singulatim rotundatis, haud striatis ; pygidio in 
mucronem elongatum producto; antennis pedibusque anterioribus 
paulo clarioribus. 

Long. corp. lin. 2-3. 


The uniformly reddish-brown surface of this rather large 
Mordella, which is densely clothed with a very decumbent, 
yellowish, or fulvescent silken pubescence, must serve to dis- 
tinguish it. The strong mucro into which its pygidium is 
produced, although merely a generic character, will addition- 
ally separate it from everything else with which we have to 
do in the St.-Helena catalogue. The few examples which 
have come under my notice were captured by Mr. Melliss, 
after whom it gives me much pleasure to name the species. 


Fam. 28. Staphylinide. 
Genus 50. CREOPHILUS. 
(Kirby) Steph., Ill. Brit, Ent. v. 202 (1832). 


74. Creophilus maxillosus*. 


Staphylinus maxillosus, Linn., Syst. Nat. 421 ((1758). 
, Woll., Cat. Mad. Col. 188 (1857). 
Creophilus mazillosus, Id., Col. Atl. 487 (1865). 


A single example of the common European C. mawillosus is 
amongst Mr. Melliss’s collectanea from St. Helena; and there 


cannot be the slightest doubt, therefore, that the species has 
Qe 


36 Mr. T. V. Wollaston on the Coleoptera of St. Helena. 


been naturalized in the island from more northern latitudes. 
It has in like manner become established in the Azores, Ma- 


deiras, and Canaries. 


CATALOGUS SYSTEMATICUS. 


CARABIDA. 


1. Haplothorax, Waterh. 
1. Burchellii, Waterh. 
2. Calosoma, Weber. 
2. haligena, W. 
3. Helenze, Hope. 
3. Pristonychus, De}. 
4. complanatus, Dej. 
4. Bembidium, auct. 
5. Mellissii, W. 
SPH®RIDIADA. 
5. Dactylosternum, W. 
6. abdominale, Fab. 
6. Spheridium, Fab. 
7. dytiscoides, Fab. 
Cucusip&. 


7. Lemophleus, (Dej.) Erichs. 
*8. pusillus, Schon. 

8. Cryptamorpha, W. 
9. musze, W, 


CRYPTOPHAGID2®. 


9. Cryptophagus, Ubst. 
*10. affinis, S¢. 
MYCETOPHAGID®. 
10. Mycetea, (Kby.) Steph. 
*11. hirta, Gy/l. 
11. Typhea, (Kby.) Steph. 
*12. fumata, Linn. 
DERMESTID2. 
12. Dermestes, Linn. 
*13. cadaverinus, Fab. 
*14, vulpinus, Fab. 
13. Attagenus, Lat. 
*15. gloriose, Fab, 
HIsTERIDZ. 
14. Tribalus, Erichs. 
16. 4-striatus, W. 
15. Saprinus, Erichs. 
17. lautus, W. 
APHODIADZ. 
16. Aphodius, Ilig. 
*18. lividus, Oliv. 
RUTELID&. 


17. Adoretus, (Eschsch.) Castln. 


19, versutus, Harold. 


DyYNASTID A. 
18. Heteronychus, (Dej.) Burm. 
20. arator, Fab. 
19, Melissius, (Bates) W. 
21. eudoxus (Dej.), W. 
22. adumbratus, W. 
ELATERID®. 
20. Heteroderes, Lat. 
23. puncticollis, W. 
CLERIDZ. 


21. Corynetes, Hbst. 
*24. rufipes, Thunb. 
PTINIDZ. 
22. Gibbium, Scop. 
*25, scotias, Kab. 
ANOBIAD®. 


23. Anobium, Fab. 
*26. velatum, W. 
*27, paniceum, Linn. 
*28. striatum, Oliv. 
*29, confertum, W. 


BostTRICHID#&. 
24. Rhizopertha, Steph. 
*30. bifoveolata, W. 
*31. pusilla, Fab. 
ToMmIcID»#. 


25. Tomicus, Lat. 
32. emulus, W. 


HYLESINID&. 
26. Hylurgus, Lat. 
*33. ligniperda, Fab. 
CURCULIONIDE. 
(Cossonides. ) 


27. Stenoscelis, W. 
34. hylastoides, W. 
28. Microxylobius, Chevr. 
35. Westwoodii, Chevr. 
36. vestitus, W. 
37. lacertosus, WV. 
38. lucifugus, W. 
39. terebrans, W. 
AO, obliteratus, W. 
41. debilis, W. 
42. Chevrolatii, WV, 
43. conicollis, W. 
44, monilicornis, W, 


Rey. W. A. Leighton on Nephroma and Nephromium, 37 


' 29, Pentarthrum, W. 
45, subceecum, W. 


(Rhynchophorides. ) 
30, Sttophilus, Schonh. 
46, oryzee, Linn. 
(Synaptonychides. ) 
31. Nesiotes, W. 


47, squamosus, W. 
48. asperatus, W. 


(Trachyphleides.) 


32. Trachyphleosoma, W. 

49, setosum, W. 
(Otiorhynchides. ) 

38. Scrobius, Schonh. 
50. subnodosus, W. 

34, Otiorhynchus, Germ, 
*51. sulcatus, Fab. 

ANTHRIBID. 
35. Are@ocerus, Schonh. 


*52. fasciculatus, De Geer. 


36. Notioxenus, W. 
*53. Bewickii, W. 

54, rufopictus, W. 
55. dimidiatus, W, 
56. alutaceus, W. 

37. Homeodera, W. 
57. rotundipennis, W, 
58. alutaceicollis, W. 
59. pygmeea, W, 


BrucHID. 


38. Bruchus, Geoftr. 
60. rufobrunneus, W. 
61, advena, W. 


HALrtricimp»®, 


39, Longitarsus, Lat. 
62. Helens, W. 


_ CAssIpIpz&. 


40. Aspidomorpha, Hope. 
63, miliaris, Fub. 
CoccrnELLIp&. 
41. Cydonia, Muls. 
64, lunata, Fab, 
42. Epilachna, Chevr. 
65. chrysomelina, Fab. 
OPATRID&, 
43, Opatrum, Fab. 
66, hadroides, W. 
ULomIp&. 
44, Alphitobius, Steph. 
*67. diaperinus, Kugel. 
*68, piceus, Oliv. 
45, Gnathocerus, Thunb. 
*69. cornutus, Fab. 
46, Tribolium, MacLeay. 
*70. ferrugineum, Fab. 
TENEBRIONID. 
47. Tenebrio, Linn. 
*71. obscurus, Fab. 
48. Zophobas, (De}.) Blanch. 
72. concolor, W. 
MorvDELLID&. 
49, Mordella, Linn. 
75. Mellissiana, W. 
STAPHYLINID®. 
50. Creophilus, (Kby.) Steph. 
*74. maxillosus, Zznn. 


V.—Notule Lichenologice. No. XXXI. 
By the Rev. W. A. Leicuton, B.A., F.L.8., F.B.S. Ed. 


On certain new Characters in the Species of the Genera 


Nephroma (Ach.) and Nephromium, Ny/. 


Every student of the Lichenes, who examines his specimens 
with close observation, must frequently have noticed many 
characters which are not included in the diagnoses of species 
generally given by writers. ‘hese characters, which may 
be termed secondary, are usually minute and easily over- 
looked. Nevertheless where they are found to be constant, 
they prove to be important and characteristic, and of a useful 


38 Rey. W. A. Leighton on new Characters in 


value in recognizing and determining the species or varieties 
in which they occur. More especially are they serviceable in 
those genera in which the spores, from their general simila- 
rity, are only partially available. In the preparation of my 
‘ Lichen-Flora of Great Britain,’ now drawing towards com- 
pletion, these secondary characters have been frequently no- 
ticed in many genera; and I have accordingly pressed them 
into service. By accident my attention has been very re- 
cently drawn to the genera Nephroma and Nephromium, the 
species of which have been hitherto involved in very con- 
siderable confusion, especially those of the latter genus, by 
reason of the several species and varieties being frequently 
found growing in the same locality, and often in inter- 
mixture. 

The new characters which I have detected here are the 
chemical reaction of the thallus, the colour of the medullary 
stratum and its chemical reaction, and the structure of the 
back of the receptacle of the apothecia. Having gone through 
the goodly store of specimens in my own herbarium with 
satisfactory results, I was naturally anxious to extend my 
researches through the Hookerian Herbarium at Kew. Dr. 
Hooker, with that generous liberality so characteristic both 
of himself and of his father, the lamented Sir W. J. Hooker, 
ever ready and desirous to aid and promote scientific in- 
quiry, at once opened these collections to me. The examina- 
tion has enabled me to effect a double service—to test and 
establish the certainty and constancy of these characters, and 
to rearrange in a more complete manner these genera in that 
herbarium. 

The genus Nephroma is distinguished by the gonidial stra- 
tum being of a pale yellow-green colour and composed of 
simple gonidia; whilst Nephromium has that layer of a dark 
blue or verdigris-green, and composed of granular gonima. 
The thallus in Nephroma is, moreover, by reason of its pale 
ochroleucous colour, capable of exhibiting certain chemical 
reactions with hydrate of potash and hypochlorite of lime, 
which serve also to separate it from Nephromiwm, in which 
the fuscescent or darker colour of the thallus renders any such 
reaction imperceptible. Practically, of course, it is of little 
real consequence whether we regard these as sections of one 
genus or as separate genera, so long as we can readily distin- 
guish them by fixed characters. For readier comparison I 
have tabulated the characters to which I would call attention 
in the following way. 


romium., 


the Spe 


of Nephroma and Neph 


cles O 


j ayey-rieeg yer) j puvydery yseqy 


‘JOJORIVY O[GVyeISTUL | 
-un ue spioye ‘njhjzonphjod psahyyag 
Oy] Peplarip “ymaz ey} ynq ‘ uswto 
-ads ou wees aavy T sotoods stq3 JQ 


j Zepuvuiey uene jo 
pursy jpuereezy MeN | BIUBIUSET, 


j Loyeyy JUNOT 
jo opis ‘eAoF) SUIWRT “39 = | WIOPT 
adeg jurpesryy jo syreyg j puey 
TOPS j OOO ‘soy Morary | GO) 


jAresumyy jyesdg j pursy s.teanoo 
-UBA [| SUIvJUMOT AYPY | punog onq 
-9Z}0Y jSUOIsey ooIy | puerpunoy 
-MON j CANOUATIOT, 8 PION Weg np 


jAemiony [RoMeury 4seA.- YION 


*‘SYIVULOY PUL SorI}I]vIO'T 


‘sprvadn 
<6 he “BIPOT| “SsOT[eF Usa 
‘oyeynuvis)  ‘ayvuero| -vqdao prow, -03 ‘aojaq 
-ossoidep) -oyepnpun) -attd gata}  snorqeys ‘TAN 
‘— yy] ‘ogra ‘£ yl -ovovanging, ‘papuezord) asoppeyuei0y pus yyoours ‘unpyyndaxa 
‘TAN fund 
‘— yl copia srescetteecesdeces]  senozaers]  “qy0ouIs| -«o0z01y08 
seri Ch a) 
‘a}RpoaTe] -O0JVTUTOT 
-Osopnutnt) ATIVMSeII|  ‘snomqey{s  “‘snoxqeps) “orNy "W 
kg Ky} couqal <9 ‘K-y) Ayeqnura ‘pepuezord) pue qyoous pue yjoous)  ‘apn.gsnn 
‘ay vpoare 
-OSOTNUIEL ‘a1]U80 OT} UT, 
Ajeqnurar ‘o} BINT] soeyq ‘oye, 
pue esosni) -v, ‘pepue}) pure ‘oz tpn ‘(‘boer) 
Ko Ay} caqmpalfo‘K-py} -ossordum -o1d yon) ‘snorqeps)  *e7e[OoAoyunorpounzuU 
*BI00T]} 
-ode mozaq 
Ayayerpeut 
*moyad _| saqemuers| -WIL asopnsnt 
qUIRy OQ “moyjed| -osserdop ‘aitque| ‘esoyueTI0}} = "snorIqRS “Ly 
‘—y|coptqal gf—y! Ajeqnurm) ‘pepuezord) 9 -1yuvotstu pus yyoours| ‘unoryoun 
“eyinpaur | ‘STEM | egroeyda Sante ; “i 
jo wourean| yo Inopog | 30.808! | “Soave | jouaueye | aoxe sapg | omns adda | “*P%US 


t 


‘TAN ‘(qQoVy) VNOUHdT Ny 


40 


Rev. W. A. Leighton on new Characters in 


jVIseTTVA j edoxy poor 
jo SRE PORTE j purptezjIMG j ssouerd 


ane wuUIoN {A 
[APoeO Ny {Siar 
j sourr,y jArwSunzT | VISeTIG j $e580 A, 


j Ayes 
jerudolozy j BALOpeyY [| S97%1g poy 


j POLAT TON 
jAuemmey $j Apeyy jaoatt rddisstssrpy 


| PUvpey Steanoous, j suoLsexy onory 


juosag | (9007 QOO'TT) PAvTeUITT 
juepemg j AreSunzyT 

jATeay = j pueptozyimg = | Sadan Ay 

JOANT jSuOISoy OLY | voloury 


TON Sy j; sessoA j purpyoog 


j WsUIqesuoseryy | oOURLT 
jO qynog jaoAt iddisstsstyy j BOL 


OUI YON jSeSsoA jpueptezjIMg 


*syIvUloy pue sarzI[VIO'T 


‘aqepoore ‘a7 BU19.10)OTPPIUL oy} UT 
-ossaidep -oyB[NpuN| eso][a}MEU04 
‘—y} eq Ayeynurat| = ‘papuezoad ‘snoiqeys 
=u ROP UUTAS Bera ces oleae eeree ee eee eve "sLOIqvps 
‘operas *9S0T 
-ossordap ‘yenboun|-nsnz ATW Sts 
‘—y| “ou Ajeynurm} = - 07 #_NuaTO ‘snoaqeys 
‘ay eldq, 
-ty-0}e}0ep 
‘ayenueis| ‘eso, WeUI04 
-ossaidep -l1epnuTe 
‘—y| ‘oqtqa| = -ooovmngany] = ‘popuezoad “QSOT]IA 
‘oyetnuero| + ayeyjaqddo 
‘QSOT]IA 10] — fesoyteTtT04 -opnesd 
‘9s0]M9TLO} -Lrepnuue ‘oyettided 
"Yop TAN ‘gsornsna| ‘papuezord|-oprqye ‘esoy[tA 
‘ayernmaro 
‘9807 T8U04 
“OSOT[IA IO -1epnuue *@SOT[TA 
‘—y| ‘aiqa) = asoquemioy! ~ ‘papuajoad 
‘eympaut | at nae : 
EN aera ese 


‘TAN SWAINOUHdIN 


*snoOIqRLo 


‘oyerp 
-9108-018a9 


"sOIGRIS 


"SpIvAr 
-dn eso][oy 
-T9 U0}. ‘MOT 


"sprvar 
-dn asoy[a} 


-9T10} ‘AAOT, 


-oq SnoIqeyo 


‘sprvadn asoy 
-19 U0} ‘MOT 


pus eyed) -aq snorqes 


*sni[eq} JO 
aad 


| 


“(UE )wenaa 
-pihdod *reA 


‘(upy) 
apupd *XBA 


Bg 
‘unwhraay 


“(Cyoy) wna 
-oq SNOIqeLS, 


-1aajay "TBA 


"IRYOS 


UNIUWDA "IBA 


OEE 


Qunsoquauo}g 


*sarvodg 


41 


the Species of Nephroma and Nephromium. 


> mene cee 


j zapueu 


-19,J7 ueng Jo puRysy j puey uajeyg 
j BIUBUIsey, [| puRTy sWeMeI UeA. 


i PUBS] OPPIAL j PuBlve7z MoNy 


‘OplAtpqns 03 Aouepus, B eAvy sT]90 
94} nq ‘aqeqdas-| apnfi7 ut ‘oye4dos-¢ 
AQouystp ere sarods oy} wnagunjd 


uy ‘soroeds oures aq} Jo soqeys 27 
-WhT pue sq} Iepisuos ynq youuvo | 


[ 4epusieg Cen so paypsy | typ 
jPULpETT [SoTeAA YON | [[Vautog 
j etysuoAeg = jeatysdorqgg = j eatys 


-yloX | WVyMG j puvptequny j pury 
-yoog jATeiy j[esnqzog jsooucrdg 
j PURTLIOZFIMG j;RARr | selIvURD 


“OUI 
-feds ou woes oAvy T WoTOTT styI JO 


j Purlea7z Many 


j puerdery yseqp 


"OJ RTOIAOJ 
‘S| “OFTYAA) = -OFBTNOTFOu 

| 
‘asoTnent 
-ossorduat 
‘—y] ‘ovIq ‘snoiqepo 
*asopnsnt 
-ossorduit 
‘—y ‘oq1Tq ‘snoiqe[s 
*aqvpoore 
-ossaidep 
‘por y| *avorjes Ajeynurut 
=JI Se PCAN em tec enece h ee 
‘—y] *aqTY A} ‘osoTToyUSMTO4 
‘aqRloore 
"Ys! -O}RTNUBIS 
-moTpeA yy] — *oq TAN Ajoynuru 


‘Broayjode ey} 


AoTeq ATA}eIp 

-oUIL 9} BTTNq 

‘oIIyU9} «= pUB OY TTLAL 
‘popuejzo.rd ‘snomqvps 
ener oes 


‘07B}U9P| UL osOoTToZ METI 


-OBLIG(UIY}] -07 ATI GSTS 
‘pepuezord ‘snoiquys 
‘ayBuero| ‘aT pprut oyy 


AjIe[NSaL11} Ut esoTjazu9 ut 
‘popuezord) -07 ‘snoaqeys 


*poamnout ‘asoTn.s 

foyerurory] = -nz ATG STIs 

~oyeuelo}| — ‘snorqeps 

"yueoseOsny 

‘snoiq Bo 

‘ertyue ATIeou “qjoours 
"OT BLIQ UI 

-0}BYUEp| —*aSOJUOTIOY 
*jenboun 

-0}8[NUEId} *asoT[o} METI} 


"9B [09 AOJ 
-OPB[NITZOL 


*SNOIGRIS 
pue qjoous 


*snOIqvIS 
pue qZoours 


*SNOIG B.S 
pue qyoours 


‘asOond 
-oyENIYEL 


"snoIqeys 


‘snoiqeps 


CPV) 
wnsojnpja2 


‘(qugy)agwhT 


“(-yU7.) 


unaquuyd 


"TRIG 


“unouppsn 


TAN 
‘ungobraajqns 


“qe 
Pun fn "IBA 


‘TAN funyjag 
~UIULOJQNS' IBA 


42 M. C. Semper on a new Genus of 'Testacellide. 


VI.—On a new Genus of Testacellides in Australia. | 
By C. Semper. 


Ir is a fact often complained of that it is extremely difficult or 


- even impossible to obtain the animals of tropical shells, espe- 
cially of the land-shells. This, indeed, is to be regretted the 
| more, as even conchologists begin to understand that the 
| examination of the animals will furnish many interesting ob- 


servations, especially valuable for the geography of the species. 


_ Very lately I met with an instance which may be worth 


_ashort notice. Through the kindness of Herr v. Frauenfeld 
- I obtained two well-preserved specimens of Helix inequalis, 
_ Pfr., which, apparently, is common in Australia, the examina- 


tion of which proved that I had a genuine Testacellid before 
me. The jaw is entirely wanting ; and, as the drawing shows, 


oh 


! Rhytida inequalis, Pfr. 


the teeth of the tongue so completely resemble those of Glan- 
dina (of which genus I have had occasion to examine three 
species) that this Australian Helicean must necessarily be 
ranged close to Glandina. 

In the work of Albers on the Helicide: this species is placed 
in the group Rhytida, which is considered there the last sub- 
genus of those allied to Patula. The type of the subgenus is 
Helix Greenwoodi of New Zealand, which is nearly related to 
the Australian species; however, Helix Stranget, Pfr., living 
also in Australia, comes nearer to it. The last species has 
lately been classified in the genus Zonites by Mousson (Journ. 
de Conch. ser. 3. vol. ix. p. 36); and indeed it cannot be gain- 
said that both these flat Rhyt¢da-species possess a certain habitus 
of Zonites; yet Crosse rightly remarks (¢b¢d. p.57. 1) that it 


Dr. E. P. Wright on a new Species of Pennella. 43 


is to be doubted if this species, the animal being unknown, is a 
genuine Zonites. If, indeed, all those species (to which, how- 
ever, Helix dictyodes, Pfr., cannot possibly belong) ranged by 
Albers in his group of Rhytida really are the most nearly related 
to inequalis, Pfr., which I examined, the whole group, under the 
name given by Albers, might be removed from the series of the 
Helices and placed among the Testacellide ; however, I would 
caution against so summary a procedure, although convenient, 
and would rather encourage Australian and other malacologists 
not to shun the trouble of examining these animals, as, surely, 
through anatomical investigation the relations between the dif- 
ferent groups of Pulmonata will be discovered more easily and 
sooner than by a continual accumulation of shells only. Cer- 
tainly a conscientious comparison of shells will gradually 
lead to natural groups; but, in spite of immense collections, 
this conchological method will always be slow and at the same 
time dangerous, for the material available on this field is too 
easily monopolized. If, instead of the thousands of shells that 
annually are sent home by collecting travellers, only a few 
hundred species in spirits, allowing a more minute examina- 
tion, were one day to reach Europe, such an event might well 
be hailed by malacozoology. 
Wiirzburg, December 9, 1869. 


VIL.—On a new Species of the Genus Pennella. By Epwarp 
PercevaL Wriaut, M.D., F.L.S., Professor of Botany in 
the University of Dublin. 


[Plate I.] 


THE memoirs of Steenstrup and Liitken in the ‘ Transactions 
of the Danish Academy’*, and of Nordmann in the ‘ Bulletin 
of the Moscow Society of Naturalists’t, have added very 
largely to our knowledge not only of the species of the genus 
Pennella, but also of the great variation to which several of the 
species appear liable. The specific characters, however, are 
for the most part difficult to determine ; this is fully recognized 
by Professor Claus in his memoir on the Lerneide ft. This 


* “Bidrag til Kundskab om det aabne Havs Snyltekrebs og Lernzer 
samt om nogle andre nye eller hidtil kun ufuldsteendigt kjendte parasi- 
tiske Copepoder,” Vidensk. Selsk. Skr. 5. R., Naturvidensk. og mathem. 
Afd. 5. Rd. 1861, pp. 841-482, tab. 1-15. 

+ “Neue Beitrage zur parasitischer Copepoden,” Bull. Soc. Imp. des 
Naturalistes de Moscou, 1864, tom. xxxvii. pp. 461-520, Taf. 5-8. 

t ‘Beobachtungen iiber Lerneocera, Pentculus und Lernea, ein Bei- 
trag zur Naturgeschichte der Lernaeen,’ Marburg & Leipsig, 4to, pp. 1-32, 
Taf. 1-4: 1868. 


44 Dr. E. P. Wright on a new Species of Pennella. 


difficulty chiefly arises from the fact that all the organs of these 
strange, grotesque creatures are subject to such wondrous 
transformations. Such a division, for example, as that of 
Milne-Edwards* into those having a head with two horns 
and those having a head with three, disappears before such a 
species or variety as the P. varians, St. & L.t Heller; in the 
‘ Novara-Reise’}, divides the family Lernzeide into two groups 
or subfamilies, the second of which is distinguished by the 
females having filiform ovisacs: this section he calls Pennel- 
line, subdividing it as follows :— 


I. Those with a rostriform mouth, ovisacs long and not con- 
voluted, bodies covered with a thin integument. 

II. Those with a non-rostriform mouth, ovisacs convoluted, 
bodies covered with a hard integument. 


The genera placed in the first division are :—Pennella, Oken; 
Peniculus, Nordmann; Lerneonema, M.-Edw.; and Peroderma, 
Heller. 

Pennella sultana, Nord., is placed by Heller§ in the second 
division, and forms a new genus, Lerneolophus, which, so far 
as regards the possession of abdominal plumose appendages, 
takes the place in this division that Pennella does in the first 
division. 

While, therefore, fully aware of the difficulties that for the 
present surround this question of classification, and ready to 
admit that neither length of body nor size of cephalic, thoracic, 
or abdominal appendages can be looked on as certain indica- 
tions of specific differences, I yet venture to bring forward as 
new the following species, in the belief that it is undescribed, 
and with the hope of throwing some little light on our know- 
ledge of the genus. These parasites do not occur so very 
frequently as to lead me to hope that by waiting I might be 
able to decide the questions as to its range of variation &c. 
thoroughly. 

Pennella orthagorisct, sp. n. 


9. Cephalic region. ‘Twice as broad as long, divided into two 
lobes. On its dorsal surface, and situated between these lobes, 
an eye-spot; on either side of which, but scarcely in front, a 
pair of minute antennules with from thirteen to fifteen longish 
sete: on each; still further in front a pair of antenne obscurely 


* ‘Histoire Naturelle des Crustacés,’ tome iii. p. 522. 

+ L.c. p. 413. 

{ Zoologischer Theil, Bd. ii. Abth. 3. Crustaceen beschrieben von ©. 
Heller. Wien, 1865, p. 244. 

So Terpe aol, 


Dr. E. P. Wright on a new Species of Pennella. 45 


three-jointed, the distal jomt cheliform. On-the front of the 
head, on its ventral surface and surrounding the oral opening, 
are a number of small cauliflower-like excrescences, of which 
a few are more conspicuous than the others ; sometimes these 
spring each from a separate base, sometimes two or more from 
the same twig. At the junction of the thoracic with the ce- 
phalic region there are two long horn-like appendages an inch 
and a half each in length; these arise from the dorsal surface, 
and, like the thoracic and abdominal regions, are invested by 
a thin, almost colourless integument, which forms a kind of 
tube around them. 

Thoracic region. Applying this name to the region inter- 
vening between the horn-like appendages and the origin of 
the ovisacs, it is 52 inches in length: for the first three inches 
it is about an eighth of an inch in diameter; it then gradually 
expands until, where it joins the abdomen, it is fully a quarter 
of an inch in diameter; the integument forms a clear tube- 
like covering over it, and is quite smooth and glistening. 
Close to the head, on the ventral surface, are four pairs of 
minute appendages (feet), the first three pairs close together, 
the fourth and most anterior pair somewhat separated from 
the others: these very rudimentary feet, when highly magni- 
fied, appear to end in a minute claw. 

Abdominal region. At the commencement of this region, 
and from its ventral surface, the two long ovisacs arise; these 
measure just 11 inches in length; they are straight, and ap- 
pear obscurely jointed, joints long. The plumose filaments are 
lateral and numerous ; they are compound ; that is to say, from 
two to five spring from the same base; but the common basal 
portion is very short; towards the anal orifice they are gene- 
rally given off in pairs. The terminal portion of the body is 
destitute of filaments; the anal orifice is oval, central, and 
terminal. 

Colour (as seen some days after death, preserved in sea- 
water). Head and horns of a bright brown colour; body, seen 
through the glistening investing membrane, of a dark olive- 
brown, with circular stripes of a lighter hue ; ovisacs greyish 
white; plumose appendages deep black, but the clear integu- 
ment investing these gave the terminal points of each the 
appearance of being tipped with silver. 

Male unknown. 

Habitat. In the body of Orthagoriscus mola, on either side 
of the dorsal fin. Cork Harbour, November 1869. 

Total length of the perfect specimen examined, from top of 
head to anal opening, 7 inches. 

I am indebted for this species to my friend Dr. Harvey, of 


46 Dr. EK. P. Wright on a new Species of Pennella. 


Cork, one of the few medical men of Ireland who never, amid 
the exigencies of a large professional practice, forget the in- 
terests of science. He informs me that the two specimens 
were found projecting from a circular depression in the thick 
skin of a young sunfish, near to its dorsal fin; they were 
buried in the skin and muscle of the fish to an extent of three 
inches. One specimen was broken off in removing it. There 
were also two specimens of Tristoma coccineum adhering to 
the head of the fish. 

I have compared this species with all those of which I could 
find an account. Some figures and descriptions, like those in 
the ‘ Voyage de la Peyrouse,’ represent species which it would 
be impossible to determine without the aid of the original spe- 
cimens. The largest species described, and the one that I 
think approaches nearest to P. orthagorisct, is the P. pustulosa, 
Baird. This species was originally published in Angas’s 
‘Savage Life and Scenes in Australia ;’ but Dr. Baird’s de- 
scription was copied into the ‘ Annals,’ ser. 1. vol. xix. 1847, 
p- 280; the woodcut is not very characteristic. The specimen 
was found buried in a dolphin’s body, near its gills (the 
dolphin was captured in lat. 11° 54’ 8., long. 27° W.); the 
length was 4 inches. The plumose appendages are described 
as simple, and the abdomen as being of a very dark purple 
colour, and studded all over with small whitish pustules. If 
there be no mistake in the description of the plumose ap- 
pendages, the species from the dolphin is not the same as that 
from the sunfish. Dr. Baird informs me that he examined a 
esas of Pennella from a sunfish captured at Megavissey, 

ornwall, which he refers to P. filosa, Linn. This will have 
been, I think, the first instance of the capture of this species 
on the coast of Great Britain. 

Professor Claus* figures the eye of a species of Pennella, 
which he found placed below the cheliform antenne. He de- 
scribes it as consisting of a collection of pigment-cells covered by 
three clear cornea-like portions—one central, and one on either 
side. I cannot find, on a close examination of two specimens of 
P. orthagorisct, any appearance of a corneal structure. In the 
place indicated by Professor Claus there is a collection of pig- 
ment, which certainly acts as an eye, and there are obscure traces 
of the pigment matter being arranged into a series of hexagonal 
facets. The feathered antennules (or appendages to the second 
cephalic somite) were distinctly to be seen on both specimens 
examined. I cannot find that they have been described or 
figured as occurring in any species of Pennella. Their exist- 
ence is a matter of some little interest; for we thus find the 

* L.c. p. 5, pl. 2. fig. 10. 


Messrs. Hancock & Howse on Janassa bituminosa. 47 


first three and most constant segments of the head represented 
by their appendages, though these are diminished to a very 
minute size, so as not, in P. orthagorisci, to be visible to the 
unassisted vision. ‘As we also find four out of the five pairs 
of thoracic appendages present, it is pretty plain that it is 
chiefly the ordinary oral appendages, or rather those appen- 
dages usually modified for the purpose of assisting in the pre- 
hension and mastication of food, that become altered into the 
strange-looking arborescent follicles met with around the 
mouth. 


EXPLANATION OF PLATE I. 


Fig. 1. Pennella orthagorisci, 9, natural size. (The specimen has shrunk, 
from being preserved in spirits. ) 

Fig. 2. Head, enlarged, dorsal aspect. 

Fig. 3. The same, ventral aspect. 

Fig. 4. Eye-spot (a), antennules (6), antenne (c). 

Fig. 5. Anal orifice. 

Fig. 6. Head of second specimen, showing the comparatively short horns. 


VIII.—On Janassa bituminosa, Schlotheim, from the Marl- 
Slate of Midderidge, Durham. By A.pany HANCOCK, 
F.L.S., and Ricuarp Howse. 


[Plates II. & II.] 
THROUGH the obliging kindness of Joseph Duff, Esq., who 


has been for many years actively investigating the fossil flora 
and fauna of the south of Durham, we have lately had an 
opportunity of thoroughly examining the structure of the jaw- 
teeth and shagreen skin of this most interesting addition to the 
fauna of the English Marl-slate, which is the exact equivalent 
of the German Kupferschiefer. 

Four groups of these remarkable jaw-teeth have been ob- 
tained by Mr. Duff at Midderidge—the first group in the year 
1865, and the others during the autumn of the present year, 
1869. These are, we believe, the first and only specimens 
that have been discovered in England. 

But in Germany this species has been frequently found in 
the Kupferschiefer, which is very much worked, on account of 
the valuable copper-pyrites which it contains, in numerous 
localities ; and consequently the general appearance of these 
teeth must be well known to those who are familiar with the 
works of Schlotheim, Miinster, Geinitz, and others. Accord- 
ing to the last-named author, the beautiful specimen still 


48 Messrs. Hancock & Howse on Janassa bituminosa 


preserved in the Dresden Museum was well figured in the 
Dresden Magazine in the year 1762. Afterwards, in the year 
1820, it was described by Schlotheim as a Trilobite, under the 
name Trilobites bituminosus (Petrefactenkunde, p. 39); and in 
1823 two figures were given by this author, in his ‘ Nachtrag’ 
ii, tab. 22. f..9a, 96. 

Between the years 1833-1843, Count Miinster figured and 
described numerous examples of the strongly characterized 
teeth and the shagreen skin of this peculiar fish under two or 
three generic and five or six specific names. ‘These teeth were 
by him supposed to be palatal (an opinion which seems to be 
entertained by later German authors), and to belong to a fish 
of the Placoid order. After carefully examining the descrip- 
tions and figures given by Count Miinster, we fully agree with 
those writers who consider that the following references belong 
all to one species, and we also are quite assured that the speci- 
mens obtained from the English Marl-slate are perfectly identi- 
cal with those described by this author in his Beitriige zur Petre- 
factenkunde :—Heft i. Janassa angulata, p. 67, Taf. 4. £1, 2; 
J. Humboldii, p. 122, Taf. 14. f.4; J. bituminosa, Schloth. 
p. 122. Heft ii. J. angulata, p. 122, Tat. 3&4. f.5a; Dictea 
striata, p. 124, Taf.3 & 4. f.1,3,4; Taf. 8. f. 3, 4,6, 7,8, 9,10. 
Heft v. Janassa dictea, pp. 37-39, Taf. 15. f. 10-16. Byzenos 
latipinnatus, Heft vi. p. 50, Taf. 1. f. 2. 

About the same time, Janassa was briefly described by 
Agassiz under the name of Acrodus larva, Poiss. Foss. iil. 
pp- 147, 174, 376, tab. 22. f. 23-25; and this learned author 
for the first time pointed out the probable affinities of these 
remarkable fish-remains. 

Later German authorities, and especially our friend Dr. 
Geinitz, had already arrived at the conclusion that the va- 
rious species of Janassa and Dictea described by Count Miin- 
ster must all be brought back to one form, to which, by right 
of priority, Schlotheim’s specific name should -be attached. 
Indeed Dr. Geinitz has so recently (Dyas, 1861) examined 
and carefully commented on the various species described by 
Count Miinster, that we think it better to give a translation 
of his remarks than to offer detailed ones of our own, especi- 
ally as Dr. Geinitz would have the advantage of seeing many 
of the German specimens, and as we do not, excepting in one 
or two points, differ in opinion from the conclusions arrived at 
by this excellent naturalist. In fact Miinster himself seems 
to have been satisfied that his genera Janassa and Dictea 
were identical, and also to have had some doubts as to the 
value of some of the species which he has made of Janassa 
bituminosa. Dr. Geinitz observes :— 


From the Marl-Slate of Midderidge. 49 


“The beautiful original of J. Humboldt’ in the Dresden 
Museum (Dyas, tab. 4. f. 5), of which a very good figure was 
given in the year 1762 in the ‘ Dresden Magazine,’ and which 
happily was recovered from the ashes of the fire at the Zwinger, 
is again figured here, because Miinster’s figure is reversed. This 
still beautiful specimen deserves a new illustration, because it 
furnishes a proof that not only all Count Miinster’s species 
of Janassa, but also his Dictea striata, must be referred to the 
type to which the first name given by Schlotheim belongs. 

“The oval, uniformly arched palate (Gaumen) is paved with 
from five to seven rows of chisel-formed, strongly curved at 
their upper enamelled end, and nail-shaped recurved teeth, 
which are indistinctly imbricated, and which are separated 
by a deep furrow into an anterior and a posterior division. 

“In the teeth of the anterior division the nail-formed end is 
bent backwards to the throat (7b. tab. 5. f. 3), in those of the 
posterior, on the contrary, forwards (7b. tab. 5. fig.4). The three 
middle rows of the anterior division, of which each one has 
six teeth, the size of which increases from before backwards, 
contain generally the largest teeth: only these three rows 
have been figured by Schlotheim, who thought he saw in 
them the structure of the Trilobites. On each side lie two 
more rows of smaller teeth, which stand obliquely to the 
primary rows, and of which the outer ones only appear to be 
lamelliform*. They are not shown in Miinster’s figure of J. 
angulata (Beitr. 1. tab. 4. f. 1, 2). In Beitr. i. tab. 3 & 4, 
f. 5, they are only partly to be seen; but on the J. Hwmboldti 
they are better shown, while in Miinster’s J. Dictea (Beitr. v. 
tab. 15. f. 10) they stand a little separated, certainly from the 
result of dislocation. 

“The posterior shorter group of teeth, which in Miinster’s 
figure (Beitr. v. tab. 15. f. 10) is represented as correctly as 
possible, contains as many longitudinal rows of teeth as the an- 
terior division, which in size decrease backwards and stand in 
five transverse rows. Their upper enamelled end seems in all 
to be bent forwards, or in the opposite direction to those of 
the anterior group of teeth. Miinster ascribes such a curva- 
ture to two teeth only, which in his specimen are situated im- 
mediately between the two divisions of the palate and out of 
place (Beitr. v. p. 39, tab. 15. f. 13,9, h) ; but he announces 
expressly that this palate is a little drawn out and dislocated, 
for which reason the teeth are not in their usual regular 
position. 


* The lamelliform teeth of Geinitz are those we have named petalo- 
dontoid. 


Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser.4. Vol. v. 4 


50 Messrs. Hancock & Howse on Janassa bituminosa 


“Tn our Janassa, the original of J. Humboldt?, Miinster, all 
the remaining teeth of the first cross row of the posterior divi- 
sion, from the line a b, have an equal curvature forwards of 
their upper part. The teeth of the cross rows standing behind 
them are only marked by broken roots. This specimen shows 
yet another character of the genus Janassa, which has not yet 
been described in any other specimen. At the posterior part 
of the head, or rather at the entrance of the throat, there 
are two large, similarly formed, bent teeth (dd), like all the 
others of the posterior division, which Count Miinster took for 
ear-bones (Beitr. i. 1845, p. 122). 

“ On the specimens which are broken through parallel to the 
palate-plate, as in ‘ Dyas,’ tab. 5. f.1, the six-sided form of 
the teeth shows itself clearly; but the boundary between the 
anterior and posterior divisions of the teeth shows itself also 
on these very distinctly, as the front teeth of the former have 
the anterior side concave and the hinder convex; but on the 
latter this appears reversed (7d. tab.5.f.1). In Miinster’s figures 
this relation is only taken into consideration in J. Dictea. 

“Tn our J. Humboldti (cb. tab. 4. f. 5) the first cross row of 
teeth of the posterior division is by pressure driven close to 
the last cross row of the anterior division, and partly under it, 
for which reason one cannot see the separating furrow; and 
Count Miinster has felt himself justified in placing J. Hum- 
boldti with Dictea (Beitr. v. p. 38). 

“ From the similar form of the teeth of Miinster’s Janassa and 
Dictea, of which the structure is always tubular, while the 
outer surface of the root shows more or less distinct transverse 
roots (Dyas, tab. 4. f.5, c, and tab. 5. f. 1), and from the perfectly 
similar arrangement of the teeth in J. angulata, J. Dictea, and 
J. Humboldti, Miinster, with that in our figures, which cannot 
be recognized in Miinster’s ideal and quite incorrect figure 
(Beitr. 11. tab. 3 & 4. f. 2), there can exist no doubt whatever 
as to the identity of both genera and the five different species 
in them. 

“In Dictea striata, Minster (Beitr. 1. tab. 3 & 4. f.1), the 
whole contour of the fish appears before us, though the swim- 
ming-appendages which surround the body permit a different ex- 
eect because this specimen lies more on the belly. The 

ength of the fish, without the caudal fin, is 0°390 metre ; the 
height of the head 0-080 metre, the body at the pectorals, 
not including these, 0°071 metre; the greatest width between 
the ventrals and the pectorals 0:110 metre, at the anal fin 
0:055 metre, and at the base of the tail 0°035 metre broad. 
The whole body and all the fins or swimming-enlargements 
are covered with a fine shagreen skin. 


from the Marl-Slate of Midderidge. 51 


“The specimen shown (Dyas, tab. 5. f. 1) widens out at the 
back of the head on each side in an arched, triangular, wing- 
shaped, blunt process (cc), which may represent the cross bone 
(os transversale). 

“ Byzenos latipinnatus, Miinster, 1843 (Beitr. vi. tab. 1. f. 2, 
p- 00), from the Kupferschiefer of Richelsdorf, is a fragment 
covered with fine shagreen, but which does not admit of a 
perfect description, and which might just as well be referred 
to J. bituminosa as to any other genus of fish.” 


With the above remarks we entirely concur, excepting the 
statement that the teeth of Janassa are palatal, as it is proved, 
by their relationship to Myliobates, that they are true jaw- 
teeth. The other remark that does not appear to us satisfac- 
tory is, that the two bodies designated by Count Miinster ear- 
bones are considered by Dr. Geinitz to be teeth placed near 
the entrance of the throat. ‘The specimens from our locality 
do not show a trace of these peculiar bodies; but we are dis- 
posed to consider them casts of a pair of cranial cavities rather 
than teeth. That they are not teeth seems to be clearly indi- 
cated by the entire absence of enamel covering, as pointed out 
by Count Miinster. Dr. Geinitz has also incorrectly classified 
this fish with the Cestracionts ; but, by the observations made 
in a former paper, it will be seen that we agree with Professor 
Agassiz in placing Janassa among the Rays. 

We now, after these introductory remarks, proceed to give 
a general description of the oral armature of this curious fish, 
and, in conclusion, a special description of the several speci- 
mens obtained by Mr. Duff. 

The dental apparatus of Janassa bituminosa is very peculiar; 
it cannot, however, be distinguished generically from that of 
the so-called Chmaxodus lingueformis, Atthey, the Coal- 
measure representative of Miinster’s genus; and for a com- 
parison of the two we would refer to the previous paper on 
the subject, published in the November Number of the 
‘ Annals ’*. 

The teeth of the fish now before us, like those of the Coal- 
measure species, are of two kinds, primary and secondary, the 
latter being petalodontoid in form. ‘The largest of the pri- 
mary, including the root, are 14 inch long and 4 inch wide ; 

* Hancock and Atthey, ‘On the Generic Identity of Climaxodus and 
Janassa.” In the figure of the restored row of teeth of the so-called Ci- 
maxodus lingueformes illustrating the former paper, the under row is re- 
presented as in advance of the upper, purposely to indicate its relation to 
the latter. But the specimen clearly demonstrates the fact that the upper 


row projects a little in advance of the under, as is the case in Janassa 
bituminosa. 
4* 


52 = Messrs. Hancock & Howse on Janassa bituminosa 


they are elongated, somewhat depressed, ovate, tapering a 
little posteriorly, and have the surface divided into two well- 
marked portions—an anterior scoop-like cutting-margin, and 
a posterior ridged crushing-surface or disk, with a long de- 
pressed root extending backwards (PI. II. figs. 2, 4, 5). 
The scoop-like cutting-margin is considerably more than one- 
fourth the entire length of the crown; it projects upwards and 
forwards, and is smooth and concave, with the edge usually 
obtuse and arched or a little sinuous from wear, but when 
comparatively fresh is pretty regularly arched, and when 
quite perfect is probably denticulated, if we may judge from 
the small lateral teeth. The crushing-surface or disk is elon- 
gated, the sides being nearly parallel, though tapering to a 
blunt poimt behind, the general form resembling that of a 
lengthened shield. The surface is convex, and is covered 
with about twenty close-set transverse ridges, imbricated for- 
wards, and irregularly undulated, notched and tuberculated, 
and arched forwards at the sides. 

The scoop-like cutting-margin and the crushing-disk we 
shall call the upper surface, these being, in fact, the only 
exposed portions, though in reality they represent the surface 
that is usually considered the back of the tooth. The other or 
opposed surface, which in ordinary cases would be called the 
front, we shall name the under surface, because it is under- 
most as the tooth rests on the jaw. The under surface, then, 
presents a very peculiar appearance: it is divided into three 
sharply defined, longitudinal, flattened areas or facets; so that 
in transverse section this side would show as half a hexagon. 
The central area, which is divided from the two lateral areas 
by a ridge or angle, is usually a little channelled. The back 
of the scoop-like cutting-margin is also a little flattened at the 
sides and centre. 

The root is a depressed process, longitudinally striated, 
somewhat narrower than the crown, and about half its length ; 
it originates in the under surface near to the posterior extre- 
mity, and arches backwards and downwards. It is con- 
sequently an extension, as it were, of the crown in a plane 
below the crushing-disk. 

When seen in profile the primary teeth are observed to 
assume a decided sigmoid curve, the anterior scoop-like cut- 
ting-margin being turned rather abruptly im one direction, 
and the posterior extremity of the crushing-disk and root in 
the other or opposite direction (fig. 4). 

The large primary teeth, which hold a central position, are 
symmetrical; the smaller lateral ones, though they agree in 
every other respect with the above, are more or less oblique, 


from the Marl-Slate of Midderidge. 53 


the sides being unequal, particularly the scoop-like portion, 
one side of which is more developed than the other. And the 
root likewise is turned a little to one side, especially in the 
second lateral. 

The secondary or petalodontoid teeth are not more than 
$ in. long, and about the same wide; they are depressed and 
partake otherwise of the general characters of the primary 
teeth. They are more inequilateral and oblique than the 
smaller primaries, one side being much more arched than the 
other. The cutting-margin is slightly arched and denticu- 
lated, but is narrow and only a little concave; the crush- 
ing-disk, too, is wider than long, the transverse, imbricated 
ridges being reduced to about half a dozen. 

The upper surface of all the teeth, whether primary or 
secondary, is covered with a thick layer of opaque white ena- 
mel-like matter. ‘This has a very striking appearance, con- 
trasting as it does with the dark hue of the rest of the tooth, 
and being strongly defined around the margin by a thickened 
rim, which is best seen when the tooth is turned with its face 
downwards. 

And, moreover, when the enamelled surface is a little worn, 
it becomes pitted and freckled all over with dark irregular 
points, which are sometimes elongated, particularly on the 
anterior or cutting-margin. 

There is little difficulty in determining the manner in which 
these curious teeth are placed in, or rather on, the jaws; for 
apparently the whole of the teeth of both jaws have been 
found lying in their original position, though the jaws them- 
selves have entirely disappeared, they having undoubtedly 
been composed of cartilage. Having carefully examined Mr. 
Duff's specimens, which will shortly be described, and after a 
full consideration of Count Miinster’s figures and descriptions, 
we can have little hesitation in giving the following account of 
the arrangement of these rather extraordinary dental organs— 
and this notwithstanding that we are acquainted with no- 
thing exactly like it, either in fossil or recent fishes, except 
in the so-called Climaxodus. 

First, then, the teeth are arranged in both upper and lower 
jaws (PI. II. figs. 2, 3) in precisely the same order. In both 
they are placed in transverse horizontal rows, across the ante- 
rior portion of the jaws, and in such a manner that never more 
than a single row in each jaw is in operation at the same time. 
Each such horizontal row is composed of seven teeth (five 
primary, two secondary), placed lengthwise, with the cutting- 
margin in front. A large symmetrical primary tooth is situ- 
ated on the longitudinal median line, or exactly over the sym- 


54 Messrs. Hancock & Howse on Janassa bituminosa 


physis ; on each side of this central tooth are a first and a se- 
cond asymmetrical primary tooth, making up the five primaries. 
These are flanked on either hand with a single secondary or 
eee tooth, completing the full complement of seven. 

hey diminish in size from the centre, the flanking petalodon- 
toid teeth being quite small in comparison with the large 
central primary tooth. 

The rows are placed one above the other in horizontal 
ranges, the lower rows acting merely as mechanical supports 
to the upper row, or that which was alone employed in cutting 
and crushing the food. There are from four to seven such 
horizontal rows, the teeth diminishing in size downwards, 
the lower ones having been first developed, and in succes- 
sion having had their period of active operation. As they 
wear out (that is, as the cutting-margins become blunt, and as 
the imbricated ridges of the cutting-disks are obliterated or 
reduced), a new row is developed behind, and, rising up, falls 
forward, and rests upon the row last 1 in use ; while at the 
same time the dentigerous membrane is pushed forward, and 
the oldest row, the lowest in the series, or that which was first 
developed, falls away. Thus, by this double action of growth 
and decay perpetually going on, there is always an efficient 
row at the surface, able to initiate the process of alimentation, 
sustained at a proper elevation on a firm basis. 

This constant renewal of the oral armature is nothing 
extraordinary, as it is common to all the Sharks and Rays, 
the close allies of Janassa. But that the new set of teeth 
should overlie and be supported by the old ones is indeed 
without a parallel, so far as we are acquainted with the subject 
of ichthyic dentition, with the exception of the so-called Climax- 
odus lingueformis ; "and that interesting Coal-measure species 
has been shown to be a true Janassa, in the paper previously 
quoted from the November number of the ‘Annals.’ The 
only instance that occurs to us in which something similar is 
found, is seen in the Greenland Shark, Squalus borealis, in 
which the older teeth of the lower jaw le in front of and give 
support tothe last-developed or those in use. Teeth of Petalodus, 
we believe, have also been found lying in regular order, as if 
forming a portion of a vertical row, 

This curious pile of teeth forms a close, dense mass, increasing 
in size upwards, or as the last-developed teeth are approached— 
the smaller rows of teeth, as already stated, being below; and 
the teeth themselves are, as it were, interlocked. The central 
teeth of each horizontal row are the only ones that are placed 
exactly above each other; the lateral teeth of the successive 
rows are arranged in quincunx; so that they may .be looked 


Jrom the Marl-Slate of Midderidge. 5d 


upon as forming slightly diverging diagonal lines, having the 
central teeth as their starting-point. Now, the first primary 
lateral teeth, or those next the centre, underlie to some ex- 
tent the under surface of the central teeth ; and the second 
primary lateral underle in a similar manner the margins 
of the first primary, and so with the third or petalodontoid 
teeth. Thus the whole mass becomes interlocked like a piece 
of masonry; or, if we take all the central teeth to form a ver- 
tical row, and consider in like manner the various lateral 
teeth, then it might be said that the teeth composing such 
vertical rows had their lateral margins insinuated between 
those of the adjacent rows. 

In consequence of this interlocking and close approximation, 
the back or under surface of each tooth becomes worn, and 
the three longitudinal areas or facets, already described, become 
more strongly defined. The central area and the two lateral 
areas are in this way affected by the three teeth that conduce 
to the support of each superincumbent tooth. That this is the 
fact is apparently demonstrated by the central area being occa- 
sionally grooved transversely, corresponding as the grooves 
do to the imbricated ridges of the crushing-disk of the sup- 
porting teeth (Pl. II. figs. 1 & 5). 

As a further proof that such is the fact, it may be observed 
that when the crushing-disk has by previous use been worn 
smooth, which frequently occurs, the central facet of the cor- 
responding superincumbent tooth is likewise smooth. It is 
only when the ridges are retained that these impressions are 
observed in the upper teeth ; and, indeed, were no other evi- 
dence at hand, it is patent enough that these peculiar facets 
are in part the result of wear ; for they exhibit on their sur- 
faces the internal structure of the matter composing the tooth. 
And that the opposing crushing-disk is not equally and mutu- 
ally worn arises from the fact that it is covered with a layer of 
hard enamel-like matter. 

The existence of the transverse grooves would seem also to 
prove that while they were produced by the rubbing-motion 
of the teeth upon each other, the motion itself must have been 
very limited, or neither the grooves nor the sharp definition 
of the facets could have existed. And in this way we have a 
corroboration that the retention of the old, effete teeth is 
merely for the mechanical support that they supply to the 
upper row of teeth, upon which teeth alone devolves the func- 
tion of cutting and crushing the food. 

The four groups of teeth obtained by Mr. Duff at Midde- 
ridge are very instructive, and, though in a more or less dis- 
turbed state, are quite sufficient to show the original disposition 


56 Messrs. Hancock & Howse on Janassa bituminosa 


in the mouth. One of the specimens was quite perfect when 
found; but unfortunately an idle lad got hold of it, after the 
quarryman had carefully laid it aside, and in the mere lack of 
thought broke away a great number of the teeth. Happily, 
however, the anterior portions of nearly the whole of them are 
still left sticking in the matrix; so that not only their num- 
ber can be ascertained, but likewise the exact limit of those be- 
longing to the upper and lower jaws respectively, and their 
precise arrangement thereon. 

This specimen of the buccal armature was not only complete 
when deposited, but is lying on the slab in its natural posi- 
tion ; and probably when buried the whole fish was present, 
and lay with its back uppermost. Consequently, the mouth 
being situated beneath, as in the Sharks and Rays, the teeth 
of the overhanging upper jaw would lie in advance of those of 
the lower. Such is the case in the specimen now before us, 
as is determined by the presence of a quantity of shagreen, 
indicating as it does the direction in which the body of the 
fish was deposited. There are about three inches of this sha- 
green, extending from the posterior margin of the mass of 
teeth, or those which belong to the under jaw. And, in fact, 
there can be little doubt that, had the slab been continued 
backwards sufticiently far, we should have had an impression of 
the whole fish, marked out by the shagreen, similar to the ~ 
figure given by Miinster of his Dictea striata. 

The cutting or anterior margins of the teeth are downwards, 
for the most part buried in the matrix. Many of the roots 
and, toa great extent, the crushing-disks having been removed, 
as before stated, the specimen is, as it were, hollowed out, and 
pee an oval, disk-like aspect, an inch and three-quarters 
ong, and an inch and a quarter wide. ‘The broken anterior 
portions of the teeth line this eavity in almost perfect order, 
as if observed from the interior of the mouth, their external or 
anterior extremities bemg turned from the observer. The 
group thus seen is divided into two portions, an anterior and 
nosterior. The teeth of the former or upper jaw have their 
we or anterior scoop-like cutting-margins and crushing- 
disks, or as much of them as is left, turned downwards, and 
are closely packed together in five horizontal rows of seven 
teeth each. The central teeth of the five rows rest one upon 
the other in the median antero-posterior line, diminishing in 
size forwards and upwards as the specimen is seen. These 
five central teeth are flanked on either side by three others, 
which likewise diminish in size in front. These teeth, of 
which there are in all thirty-five, as already stated, belong to 
the upper jaw. A similar cluster of teeth belongs to the under 


From the Marl-Slate of Midderidge. 57 


jaw, and composes the posterior half of the general batch. 
These are arranged in the same fashion as those of the upper 
jaw; but instead of having the anterior scoop-like cutting- 
margins turned downwards, they are placed in the opposite 
direction, looking upwards. The anterior margins of the two 
sets of teeth meet in the transverse middle line, and are pressed 
close together, so that the entire batch is continuous, there 
being no hiatus anywhere, the mouth, in fact, being closed, 
and the teeth of the two jaws pressed together. In the under 
jaw there are likewise five horizontal rows of seven teeth 
each, though, on account of the injury the specimen has sus- 
tained, the exact number is not so easily determined as it is 
in the other jaw. 

This specimen has apparently been as complete as that 
figured by Miinster (Beitr. Heft v. Taf. 15. figs. 10, 11) under 
the name of J. Dictea, and is, indeed, a very good counterpart of 
the specimen there represented; only in ours the front or scoop- 
like cutting-margins of the teeth are buried in the matrix, the 
view of the specimen being obtained as it were from the oral 
cavity ; while Count Miinster’s figure has the front of the 
teeth exposed, as they would be seen had the fish been laid 
upon its back. 

Another of Mr. Duff’s specimens (PI. III. fig. 1), however, 
presents the same aspect as that of the figure just referred to, 
and is almost perfect, rising as that does in bold relief from 
the matrix, in the form of an irregularly rounded cluster, hav- 
ing the peculiar vesicular appearance seen in most of Miinster’s 
figures. This appearance is very remarkable, and at first 
sight has, as was suggested to us on showing the specimen to 
a friend, no little resemblance to a cluster of ova-capsules of 
Fusus antiquus, particularly when the teeth are a little dis- 
turbed. 

In connexion with this cluster of teeth, a large patch of 
shagreen is beautifully displayed, and enables us to determine, 
in like manner as in the former instance, which is the anterior 
margin of the specimen, the spreading of the shagreen indica- 
ting the direction of the body of the fish. 

In this specimen, as in the first-mentioned, the teeth are di- 
visible into two sets, which have their cutting-margins opposed 
to each other across the transverse median line. ‘Those of the 
anterior set belong to the upper jaw, and are closely packed to- 
gether and interlocked in the manner previously described, in 
four transverse or horizontal rows; the remains of a fifth row 
are distinctly visible. The arrangement is the same as in the 
first-described specimen: that is, in each row there is a cen- 
tral tooth with three lateral ones on each side, the extreme 


58 Messrs. Hancock & Howse on Janassa bituminosa 


flanking tooth on either hand being petalodontoid in form ; 
and the teeth composing the row next the transverse median 
line are the largest, while those in front, or those in the lower 
supporting rows, become gradually smaller. 

The teeth of the lower jaw, or those at the posterior margin 
of the cluster, are in a comparatively disturbed state ; but the 
anterior cutting-margins are turned forward, so as to oppose 
those of the upper jaw, whose cutting-margins are turned 
backwards. In the lower jaw four horizontal rows are dis- 
tinctly determinable, while indications of a fifth can be traced. 
On account of the disturbance of these teeth, the central large 
teeth of four rows are well displayed in profile, being turned 
over towards the right of the observer, and lying in regular 
order, one behind the other, so that the whole length of the 
teeth is exposed, the roots being traceable in the matrix. 
Several of the lateral teeth are scattered on either side, and 
three or four are removed to some distance to the left. 

This specimen is fortunately broken through transversely 
near the centre, in such a manner that the greater portion of 
the upper or crushing-disks, with the anterior cutting-margins 
of one row of teeth and the backs or under-surfaces of another, 
are finely displayed. And thus we obtain a clear demonstra- 
tion of the arrangement of the teeth in this fine specimen, and 
at the same time a complete exposition of the characters of the 
teeth themselves. 

A third slab exhibits a dense mass of teeth of an irregularly 
rounded form, comprising numerous teeth of both jaws (Pl. IIT. 
fig. 2). Here, again, the shagreen shows the position in which 
the body of the fish was deposited ; but as all the teeth have 
the anterior scoop-like cutting-margins in one direction, there 
can be no question as to which is front. The specimen rests 
on the slab with the face uppermost, much as in the last case; 
only the whole are turned forward, and, unlike it, the teeth 
are in a much disturbed state, particularly those of the under 
jaw, which lie uppermost. These, or at least all that remain 
of them, have been pushed so far forward that they overlie 
those of the upper jaw towards the left side, leaving exposed 
the upper surtace of the large central tooth and the first lateral 
of the working row of the upper jaw, which are well exhibited 
in their true position ; and the remains of a second lateral tooth 
and one or two of the petalodontoid form are seen at the ex- 
treme right. These exposed teeth of the upper jaw have their 
crushing-disks and cutting-margins turned upwards; and their 
roots are well displayed, sinking backwards into the matrix. 
The few teeth of the under jaw already spoken of on the left 
have their under surfaces or backs exposed, the crushing-disks 


from the Marl-Slate of Midderidge. 59 


being turned down to oppose those of the upper jaw. At the 
posterior part of the general mass several of the second primary 
and petalodontoid teeth lie scattered about, chiefly with the 
under surfaces uppermost. 

The remaining specimen (PI. II. fig. 1) to be noticed, though 
consisting of only a few teeth, is very interesting, inasmuch as 
it displays in profile an entire vertical row, lying in almost 
exact order, one resting upon the other. The whole length of 
the teeth is seen, from the cutting-margin to and including 
the root, bent in a deep sigmoidal curve. The series appears 
to be of the central teeth: four lie in close contact, the back or 
under surface of one individual resting upon and fitting exactly 
to the face or upper surface of that immediately below it. A 
very imperfect fragment of a fifth tooth is seen pressed to the 
under surface of the fourth of the series; and in front consi- 
derable portions of two lateral primaries lie with their under 
surfaces uppermost, one of which exhibits in a remarkable 
manner the transverse grooves caused by the rubbing of the 
erushing-disk of the tooth on that supporting it. Similar 
transverse grooves can be seen on one or two other teeth of the 
series. A considerable fragment of a second primary lies near 
the centre of the row. 

The minute structure of the teeth is rather peculiar; and 
though we have not examined it in the entire tooth, and though 
our account of it must necessarily be imperfect, as it is from 
mere fragments, yet we cannot refrain from saying something 
on the subject. 

We have stated that the upper surface (namely, the anterior 
scoop-like margin and the crushing-disk) is covered with a 
layer of opaque-white enamel-like matter. This coating is 
thickest over the crushing-disk, where it is of a considerable 
depth. When the tooth is quite fresh, there appears to overlie 
this a thin film of transparent enamel. ‘The interior is com- 
posed of a rich brown-coloured substance, which may be looked 
upon as a form of dentine, made up of large, branched and 
anastomosing tubes with thick walls, which, for the most part, 
run lengthwise ; their cavities are undoubtedly medullary chan- 
nels ; they are narrow in proportion to the thickness of the en- 
tire tube. These give off, almost at right angles, small, irre- 
gular, branched and anastomosing tubes, which, penetrating 
the overlying white enamel-like matter, abut near to the sur- 
face. ‘The white matter also penetrates occasionally into the 
interior of the tooth, insinuating itself between the tubes; but 
the central portion is usually so exceedingly dense that few 
traces of it are to be observed. On the upper or concave face 
of the cutting-margin, however, the dentinal tubes, which are 


60 Messrs. Hancock & Howse on Janassa bituminosa 


here small and arranged lengthwise in parallel order, lie buried 
in the white matter that in many instances permeates the en- 
tire scoop portion. 

The tubular matter, whether at the surface or in the interior, 
is composed of concentric layers; and coarse, branched tubules, 
originating in the medullary channels, penetrate their walls. 
The whole of the brown tubular matter composing the mass of 
the tooth is probably dentine, as we have just stated; or it may 
be, as stated in the paper already quoted on Climaxodus and 
Janassa, osteodentine, the small marginal tubes only being 
dentine ; but the structure of the whole appears to be the 
same. We feel equally at a loss how to denominate the 
white matter*. It is minutely granular, but otherwise quite 
structureless. If we are correct in designating it enamel, then 
there must be two kinds of enamel; or what is the transparent 
film seen on the surface in perfect specimens ? 

When the white coating is worn a little, the extremities of 
the small dentinal tubes that penetrate it are seen at the sur- 
face; and as they wear more readily than the white matter, 
the whole surface becomes minutely punctured. On the cut- 
ting-margin, however, the white matter is usually to some ex- 
tent minutely grooved longitudinally, in consequence of these 
superficial tubes of the dentine-like matter running parallel to 
the surface. 

The minute structure of the tooth as above described is seen 
to be essentially the same as that of the so-called Climaxodus ; 
but in the latter the brown dentinal tubular matter of the in- 
terior is not so dense, consequently the white matter pene- 
trates more extensively through the tissue. The small dentinal 
tubes abutting at the surface, too, are more branched and are 
less regular. The external white layer appears to be not so 
thick ; but it is almost always so much stained with black 
carbonaceous matter that it is not easily distinguished. In- 
deed we have only in one instance detected it without the aid 
of transmitted light ; but in section when so viewed its presence 
is usually observed. 

The shagreen (PI.II. fig. 6) with which the body of this fish 
is covered is exhibited in three of the four specimens obtained 
by Mr. Duff. In one of them a considerable patch of it is very 
beautifully displayed, no disturbance whatever having taken 
place in the tubercles. They are minute, and, though pretty 
close together, they are seldom in contact, there generally being 


* In the paper on Chimaxodus and Janassa this white coating is called 
“cement.” On further examination, however, we find that it has not the 
character of cement, but is merely granular, and in every respect is 
similar to the white external layer in Janassa. 


Strom the Marl-Slate of Midderidge. 61 


a space between them less than half their diameter. They are 
in the form of irregularly rounded bosses, with the surface 
smooth and glossy, and the margins sinuous and produced into 
points. Sometimes, however, they are much elongated, and 
are frequently very irregular in shape, with the marginal pro- 
longations much produced, variously formed, sharp or obtuse. 
Others have one margin comparatively smooth, the points 
being confined to the opposite side. Some are quite devoid of 
all such irregularities, the margins being smooth or only a 
little sinuous at one side ; these are rounder and larger than the 
others (fig. 8). Another form (fig. 7), not by any means un- 
common, is irregularly stellate, with the rays ridged and some- 
times a little bifurcated. 

From the fineness of the cutting-margin in the so-called 
Climaxodus, it was inferred in the former paper, so frequently 
referred to, that the food must have been composed of some soft 
material. We.are disposed to draw the same conclusion from 
the structure of the teeth of Janassa bituminosa. The scoop-like 
cutting-margin is certainly much used, for it is almost always 
greatly worn in a regular manner; only in one instance have 
we seen it a little broken. It would be an efficient instrument 
in cutting vegetable substances, and these might afterwards 
require the aid of the crushing-disk. 

In corroboration of this view of the food, we may quote a 
passage from Miinster, who says, of his Byzenos latipinnatus, 
that “the intestine seems to have been very full when the 
fish died. It is more elevated than the other parts of the body. 
On some places one sees in the interior a black earthy mass 
in which small pointed bodies appear, which are like small 
pieces of shiny coal.” May not this “black earthy mass” 
and ‘pieces of shiny coal”? be carbonized vegetable matter, 
the food of the fish ? 

It is unnecessary here to dilate on the affinities of Janassa, 
as the subject is discussed in the former paper, already quoted. 
We may remark, however, that the full investigation of the 
Permian species has only the more confirmed our opinion of 
its close alliance with the Coal-measure form (the so-called 
Climaxodus lingueformis), and of a certain relationship of 
both to Myliobates and Zygobaies. 

We may also state that Janassa is more closely related to 
Petalodus than was at first thought ; for we now find that the 
latter genus is provided with both symmetrical and oblique 
teeth; so that it is quite probable that they may be found to 
be arranged in much the same manner as those of Janassa, 
especially as the former have been found in vertical series, as 
previously stated. 


62 Mr.J.Gould on a supposed new Species of Pigeon. 


EXPLANATION OF PLATES II. & III. 
PraTE ie 


Fig. 1. Somewhat enlarged view of a central vertical row of teeth of 
Janassa bituminosa, seen in profile and exhibiting transverse 
grooves and ridges on the underside: a, under surface, with 
transverse grooves, of apparently two lateral teeth ; 0, a portion 
of a second lateral tooth. 

Fig. 2. Horizontal row of teeth of the same, a little enlarged : a, anterior 
scoop-like cutting-margin; 6, crushing-disk ; ¢, root; d, first 
lateral tooth ; e, second ditto; f, flanking petalodontoid tooth. 

Fig. 3. Diagram showing the central vertical row of teeth in profile, and 
to explain their relationship to the jaws: a, supposed upper jaw ; 
b, cy aes under jaw; c, the teeth in use; d, effete supporting 
teeth. 

Fig. 4, Profile view of a central tooth, somewhat enlarged: a, anterior 
scoop-like cutting-margin ; 6, crushing-disk ; ¢, root. 

Fig. 5. View of underside of central tooth: a, cutting-margin ; , central 
area or facet, exhibiting transverse grooves; c ¢, lateral facets ; 
d, root. 

Fig. 6. Shagreen, tubercles much enlarged, in their natural order. 

Fig. 7. Three stellate tubercles of the same. 

Fiy. 8. Two smooth tubercles. 


PLATE Il. 


Fig. 1. A group of teeth, a little over the natural size, of Janassa bitumi- 
nosa, seen in front, the anterior cutting-margins being exposed : 
a, central row of teeth of upper jaw; 0, of under jaw, with their 
sides exposed; ce, petalodontoid teeth ; d, shagreen. 

Fig. 2. Another group: a, the upper surface of two teeth of the upper 
jaw ; b, the remains of teeth of the under jaw, with their under 
surfaces exposed ; c, scattered petalodontoid teeth, with their 
undersides uppermost. 


IX.—Description of a supposed new Species of Pigeon. 
By Joun GouLp, F.R.S. 


Genus OTrIpiIpHarPs, Gould. 


Size large, equalling that of a wood-pigeon, Columba enas ; 
écll longer than the head, straight, and plover-like ; wings 
short and round, armed with a spur at the shoulder; tac/ 
round and moderately long; tars? very long for a pigeon, and 
with the toes covered with thick plate-like scales ; nat/s some- 
what straight and pointed ; general structure adapted for the 
ground rather than for trees or for flight. 


Otidiphaps nobilis, Gould. 

Bill red or fleshy red, particularly on its basal portion; round 
the eye a bare space, which appears to have been of the same 
colour; crown of the head and occipital crest black, with steel- 
blue reflections ; back of the neck resplendent glaucous green ; 


Miscellaneous. 63 


breast and under surface purple; back and wings rich chestnut, 
with violet reflections when viewed in certain lights,and passing 
into golden bronze at the nape; rump and upper tail-coverts rich 
purplish blue; tail blackish green; legs yellow or reddish yellow. 

Total length 16 inches; bill 14, wing 7, tail 62, tarsi 23. 

I obtained this fine bird of Mr. James Gardner of Holborn, 
who could not inform me of the precise locality in which it was 
collected; but as it was accompanied by Paradisea papuana, 
Epimachus maximus, many specimens ot Semtoptera Wallace?, 
and Pitta maxima, it was probably procured on some one 
of the islands of the Eastern Archipelago or in New Guinea. 
Although the bill is not toothed, this species appears to be 
allied to Didunculus. 


MISCELLANEOUS. 
Deep-sea Researches. 
To the Editors of the Annals and Magazine of Natural History. 


GeENTLEMEN,—You will oblige me, and at the same time, I be- 
lieve, further the interests of scientific truth, by inserting the follow- 
ing observations in the ‘ Annals.’ 

In a note which appeared in ‘ Nature,’ of Dec. 16th, p. 192, 
Mr. Gwyn Jeffreys makes known his views on the “ Food of Oceanic 
Animals” in these words :— 


«The receipt of an interesting paper by Prof. Dickie, entitled 
** Notes on range in depth of marine Algz,’” lately published by the 
Botanical Society of Edinburgh, induces me to call the attention of 
physiologists to the fact that plant-life appears to be absent in the 
ocean, with the exception of a comparatively narrow fringe (known 
as the littoral and laminarian zones) which girds the coasts, and 
of the “ Sargasso ” tract in the Gulf of Mexico. 

“During the recent exploration, in H.M.S. ‘ Porcupine,’ of part 
of the North Atlantic, [ could not detect the slightest trace of any 
vegetable organism at a greater depth than fifteen fathoms. Animal 
orgamsms of all kinds and sizes, living and dead, were everywhere 
abundant, from the surface to the bottom; and it might at first be 
supposed that such constituted the only food of the oceanic animals 
which were observed, some of them being zoophagons, others sarco- 
phagons, none phytophagons. But inasmuch as all animals are said 
to exhale carbonic acid gas, and on their death the same gas is 
given out by their decomposition, whence do oceanic animals get 
that supply of carbon which terrestrial and littoral or shallow-water 
animals derive, directly or indirectly, from plants? Can any class 
of marine animals assimilate the carbon contained in the sea, as 
plants assimilate the carbon contained in the air? 

“ Not being a physiologist, I will not presume to offer an opinion ; 
but the suggestions or questions which I have ventured to submit 


64 Miscellaneous. 


may perhaps be worth consideration. At all events the usual 
theory, that all animals ultimately depend for their nourishment on 
vegetable life, seems not to be applicable to the main ocean, and 
consequently not to one-half of the earth’s surface. 

“ J, Gwyn JEFFREYS.” 


It is quite unnecessary for me to criticise the remarkable opinions 
here offered regarding the Sargasso tract, the chemistry of decom- 
posing animal matter in the ocean, and the relative proportions of 
land and water on the globe. It will be seen that they are unique. 
But as Mr. Jeffreys has entered the lists as an authority on deep-sea 
lore, and now claims as his own the discovery that plant-life is 
absent in the deeper regions of the ocean, and the refutation of the 
theory (as applied to the inhabitants of the sea) that “all animals 
ultimately depend for their nourishment on vegetable life,” I must 
be excused if I endeavour to show that he has either forgotten what, 
at a not very remote period, he professed to have read of my wri- 
tings on these subjects, or that, not having forgotten them, he has 
nevertheless found it expedient, for some unaccountable reason, to 
repudiate them, and with them his own published estimate regard- 
ing their accuracy. 

The absence of all living vegetation, even of the lowest types, in 
the deeper abysses of the ocean, and the vital process whereby the 
nutrition of the lowest animal forms is secured in failure of any- 
thing like a rudimentary digestive apparatus, such as is to be found 
in the higher orders of Rhizopods, was dwelt on by me in my ‘ Notes 
on the presence of Animal Life at great depths in the Ocean,’ pub- 
lished in Nov. 1860, p. 27,—in my ‘ North-Atlantic Sea-bed,’ pub- 
lished in 1862, pp. 130-132,—in a note which appeared in the ‘ An- 
nals & Mag. Nat. Hist.’ for Aug. 1863, p. 166,—and in two papers 
contributed by me to the ‘Monthly Journal of Microscopical Science,’ 
for Jan. 1869, pp. 39-40, and April of the same year, pp. 231-233. 
Reference to these publications will therefore show that Mr. Jef- 
freys’s statements are, to say the least of them, somewhat behind 
the times. 

But to prove that Mr. Jeffreys cannot justly plead ignorance as 
to what had been previously published by me on the subject, I invite 
attention to two extracts from his ‘‘ Reports on Dredgings,” con- 
tained in the ‘ Annals’ of the respective dates given below. 


‘ Annals,’ Noy. 1866, p. 387. 


*“ Dr. Wallich, in his admirable and 
‘« philosophical treatise with which all 
“marine zoologists and geologists are, 
“ or ought to be, familiar, believed that 
“certain starfishes” Ke. &e. ‘As to 
“ the accuracy of his statements, no rea- 
* sonable doubt can be entertained.” 


‘ Annals,’ Oct. 1868, p. 305. 


“Coccospheres and free Foramini- 
“ fera cover the bed of the Atlantic at 
“enormous depths. The occurrence, 
“ therefore, of such organisms on the 
“floor of the ocean at great depths 
“does not prove that they ever lived 
“there. I should rather be inclined to 
“believe that they dropped to the 
“ bottom when dead or after having 
‘* passed through the stomachs of other 
‘animals which had fed on them.” 


Miscellaneous. 65 


It is indisputable, therefore, that Mr. Jeffreys had studied my 
writings, and that the opinion entertained of them by him in 1866 
was revoked in favour of that expressed by him in 1868; whilst that 
expressed in 1868 has again in its turn been superseded by the very 
positive contradiction it receives in his note in ‘ Nature’ published 
a fortnight ago ! 

It is likewise deserving of special notice that Dr. Carpenter, who 
might be supposed to have made himself acquainted with the whole 
past literature of the subject, should, at p. 181 of the official copy of 
his ‘ Preliminary Report on Dredging for 1868,’ have thought it 
expedient to single out from these two most conflicting statements 
that which was offered by Mr. Jeffreys in 1868 (see above), as evi- 
dence that “ Dr. Wallich’s just claims had not by any means com- 
manded the universal assent of naturalists ”»—an assent to which, if 
just, as it has now been most clearly proved that they were and are, 
those conclusions were long ago entitled. 

With regard to Mr. Jeffreys’s division of oceanic animals into 
“‘zoophagons”’ and “sarcophagons,” I have nothing to urge beyond 
my avowed inability to discern any valid physiological difference be- 
tween those that are zoophagous and those that are sarcophagous. 
It rests with Mr. Jeffreys to explain on what grounds he has felt 
justified in declaring so emphatically that ‘‘none” of the animals 
“of all kinds and sizes, everywhere abundant from the surface to the 
bottom,” observed by him in his exploration of the North Atlantie, 
were phytophagous. 

It only remains for me to add that for years I stood alone 
in maintaining, in opposition to the opinion of Ehrenberg and _ his 
followers, that all plant-life becomes extinct at depths exceeding 400 
or 500 fathoms, and that the nutrition of the Foraminifera and some 
other orders of oceanic Rhizopods is effected by a special vital func- 
tion, whereby they are enabled to eliminate, from the medium in 
which they live, the elementary ingredients which enter into the for- 
mation of their body- and shell-substances. The facts and reasoning 
on which my observations were based will be found in the various 
published papers &c. already referred to. 

I remain, Gentlemen, 
Yours very faithfully, 
G. C. Watiicn. 
Kensington, 
December 24, 1869. 


On the Specific Distinctness of Anodonta anatina. 
To the Editors of the Annals and Magazine of Natural History. 


GenTLEMEN,—There has been, and, I believe, still is, a diversity 
of opinion as to whether Anodonta anatina is a distinct species or only 
a variety of Anodonta cygnea. I have, since I commenced the study 
of conchology, inclined to the former view; and I think I am now 
able to bring forward evidence in favour of it which has not been 


Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 4. Vol. v. 2 


66 Miscellaneous. 


adduced before. It has been maintained that these animals are 
varieties because no difference is to be found in their soft parts, 
excepting as regards the general shape, which corresponds to that 
of the shell. But I have observed, in Anodonta anatina, that the 
branchial opening is not only comparatively, but actually, much 
larger and fringed with much more delicate and numefous tenta- 
cles than in Anodonta cygnea. 

There also seem to be conflicting ideas as to the direction in which 
the respiratory current proceeds, some contending that it invari- 
ably enters through the branchial orifice, and makes its exit through 
the anal one, others that it may proceed either in this or the 
reverse direction. I have taken some pains in investigating this 
subject, and have repeatedly tried experiments with the animals to 
find out the facts of the case; and the conclusion I have arrived at 
is, that, under ordinary circumstances, the current enters through 
the branchial opening, and issues through the anal one only. It 
may, however, in addition, enter at the anterior end or any inter- 
mediate point; but it never issues from any place other than the 
anal opening, excepting under peculiar circumstances, which I will 
presently mention, and then it is spasmodically. The ordinary 
position in which the animal is found is with the posterior end 
projecting from the mud which forms the sides and bottom of its 
habitat, the rest being imbedded in it. In this case, the direction 
of the current is the normal one; but should the animal choose to 
repose wholly uncovered by the mud, as not unfrequently happens, 
it then will separate the edges of the mantle from one another at 
some point, and through this the water flows also into it. Should, 
however, the branchial orifice from any cause become covered by 
sand or mud and the anal one remain free, it will then draw water in 
through the anal opening and expel it through the branchial one, 
causing the sand or mud to be blown away with very great violence, 
after which the normal state of affairs is resumed. This action is 
purely mechanical, the animal relaxing the adductor muscles, the 
valves gape, the opening, however, which would otherwise have 
been formed remaining closed by the thickened edges of the mantle 
being kept in contact; this causes the water to enter the anal orifice; 
then the valves are suddenly closed, and the water ejected through 
the branchial opening, the whole action being, in fact, exactly that 
of a pair of bellows. If both orifices are covered and there is 
water between the valves, they are brought together, and the bran- 
chial one freed, the anal one afterwards being uncovered by the 
ordinary action of the current. Any other point on the free mar- 
gin of the shell may be uncovered in a similar manner. These 
facts I have tested by many trials, both with the Anodons and the 
Unios. 

I remain, yours truly, 
R. M. Lroyp. 


8 Weston Road, Handsworth, Birmingham, 
Dec. 9th, 1869. 


Miscellaneous. 67 


On the Structure and mode of Growth of the Scales of Fishes. 
By Dr. Savsey. 


The author has made some investigations upon the structure of 
_ the skin in fishes which must lead to great modifications in our ideas, 
especially of the construction and growth of the scales. 

Fishes are generally sticky to the touch—a phenomenon which 
M. L. Agassiz ascribed to a mucosity secreted by peculiar glands. 
Leydig, however, showed that no mucus-gland exists at the surface 
of a fish. The so-called mucosity is, in fact, only the most super- 
ficial layer of the epidermis. In the terrestrial Vertebrata the most 
superficial layers of the epidermis become hardened to form the 
stratum corneum which scales off at the surface. In fishes the 
superficial cells of the epidermis, instead of hardening, absorb water, 
become softer and softer, and constitute the mucous covering of the 
surface, which is easily removed. The corium, placed immediately 
beneath the epidermis, is formed essentially of two crossed systems 
of connective bundles. It contains numerous pouches, in each of 
which a scale 1s lodged. 

It is well known that the ctenoid and cycloid scales present 
numerous concentric striz, which M. Agassiz interpreted as the 
margins of superposed layers forming the scale. This opinion, 
which is still generally accepted, is, however, quite erroneous, as 
has been clearly shown by Dr. Salbey by means of vertical sections. 
The striz are due to a series of irregular crests, which all belong to 
the superficial layer of the scale. The deeper and much thicker 
layer is formed by a series of superposed lamelle of two substances. 
The thickest lamelle are colourless and brilliant ; the thinner ones 
are yellowish and but slightly transparent; the former are calca- 
reous, the latter are composed of a sort of cement destitute of lime- 
salts. The calcareous lamelle being generally thicker in old indi- 
viduals than in the young, it is probable that their increase in 
thickness is caused by a gradual incrustation of the interposed layers 
of cement. The growth of the scale is explained by the fact, that 
a deposit of calcareous salts is formed periodically in the part of the 
corium which is directly applied against the lower surface of the 
scale. This incrusted layer becomes for a time the lowest lamina 
of the scale. Then a layer of cement is deposited between this cal- 
careous lamina and the corium: this alternate formation of calcare- 
ous and non-calcareous layers is repeated a great many times. 

Besides the concentric lines, the scales present striae which radi- 
ate from the centre to the periphery. These are the “ longitudinal 
canals” of Mandl, the “ fan-like furrows” of M. Agassiz, and the 
“sutures” of M. Peters. The name proposed by M. Agassiz (sz- 
lons en éventail) is perhaps the best, inasmuch as the strie certainly 
correspond to furrows of the surface. But from the bottom of these 
furrows true partitions of unincrusted cement start, which traverse 
the whole thickness of the scale and divide it into a certain number 
of segments. By their partial incrustation these rays of cement 
may assist in the widening of the scale. At the centre of the system 


5* 


68 Miscellaneous. 


of coricentric lines of the surface of the scale there is a region of 
peculiar appearance, which M. Agassiz designates the ‘“ centre of 
growth,” and Mandl the “focus,” by which he understands ‘ focus 
of nutrition.” M. Agassiz regards this region as the oldest portion 
of the scale, the layers of which have been worn away. As regards 
the first point, that of age, he is undoubtedly right ; as regards the 
second, this is not the case. If the asperities are less prominent in 
this part of the scale, it is because they date from a period when 
the fish was smaller.—Archiv fiir Anat. Phys. und wiss. Medizin, 
1868, p. 729; Bibl. Univ. November 15, 1869: Bull. Sct. pp. 276— 
278. 


On the Anatomy of the Alcyonaria. 
By MM. G. Povcurr and A. Myévre. 


The anatomical systems of most of the inferior animals have not 
even yet been clearly determined. The existence of distinct mus- 
cular elements in particular, long admitted upon the testimony of 
the movements which one sees executed by the animals, has only 
been demonstrated quite recently in the Actinie by M.Schwalbe. As 
to the Aleyonaria, M. C. Genth has indeed described the muscles of 
Solenogorgia tubulosa; but his description is very incomplete, and 
even it does not stand in any relation to what we have been able 
to make out of the muscles of two other Alcyonaria, Aleyoniwm 
digitatum and A. palmatum. 

The muscular elements are pale fibres, soft during life, about 0-002 
millim. in diameter when they are at the maximum of contraction, 
but usually much more slender. They are finely granular, without 
nuclei, and have distinct outlines. They may easily be isolated, at 
least in part of their length, which is variable. These muscular 
fibres are, by their appearance and size, very like those of the 
Nemertea. These fibres, in the Aleyonaria, are arranged sometimes 
in sheets, and sometimes in thicker or thinner bundles, which form 
true muscles, having sometimes very definite insertions, and needing 
to be described and named as so many primary organs. 

Ist. Longitudinal Muscles—They are eight in number, and corre- 
spond to each of the mesenteroid lamin, which they themselves 
assist to form. They extend from the peristome far into the coenen- 
chyma (sarcosome of M. Lacaze-Duthiers), which we find still 
very distinct upon the walls of the wide canal, which forms a con- 
tinuation of the bodies of the polypes (grossere Saft-Kandle of 
Kolliker). ;, 

2nd. This canal presents throughout, beneath the epithelium 
which lines it, a layer of circular or transverse fibres, covering and 
crossing at right angles the fibres of the longitudinal muscles lying 
against the substance of the coenenchyma. These fibres, retaining 
their direction, give form to the mesenteroid lamine; and they 
are to be found still, under the same conditions, even on the wall 
of the perigastric cavities. 

3rd. Sphincter—This muscle occupies the peristome. It is formed 


Miscellaneous. 69 


of eight portions, each nearly of a square form and corresponding to 
the base of a tentacle ; the eight parts are separated by raphes, which 
are only the lines of insertion of the mesenteroid lamin upon the 
peristome. : 

4th. Tentacular muscles—Kach partition separating the peri- 
gastric cavities gives origin above to two distinct muscles, which rise 
to the right and left into the two tentacles bordering upon the parti- 
tion. Each tentacle thus receives two tentacular muscles, coming 
from the two septa bounding the perigastric cavity to which the 
tentacle corresponds. They ascend to the summit of the organ, ap- 
proaching each other at a very acute angle. 

Sth. Intertentacular muscle.—In the angle formed by two neigh- 
bouring tentacles, we may clearly distinguish a muscular bundle 
which marks that angle and ascends on each side upon the borders 
of the two tentacles for nearly half their length. 

These numerous muscles are inserted everywhere upon the funda- 
mental substance of the animal, and in most cases are applied 
againstit. This substance limits externally the body of each polype. 
It emits thin expansions, which serve above as a solid framework to 
the mesenteroid laminz, bound the perigastric cavities, and are 
connected internally with another equally delicate lamina supporting 
the walls of the stomachal cavity. Externally this substance, 
whether upon the body of the polypes or between them, is nowhere 
covered with epithelium. It therefore remains in contact with the 
surrounding medium (like the bony tissue of the dermal plates of 
certain fishes). It follows from this, at least in this state of deve- 
lopment of the Aleyonarian, that the fundamental substance does not 
correspond to the definition recently given of the so-called conjunc- 
tive tissues, which have been said to be “ every tissue, with the ex- 
ception of nerves or muscles, occurring between the external epi- 
thelial layer and the internal epithelial layer.” This fundamental 
substance, both in the walls of the body of the polype and in the 
mass of the coenenchyma, is everywhere identical. 

It is fibrous in some places, and excavated by cavities of several 
kinds; and it is always in the midst of it, in places where it is perfectly 
homogeneous, that the spicules appear and become developed. Each 
polype is therefore in intimate relation of structure with the 
ccenenchyma by its constituent tissues. But the identity does not 
stop there, and we find it even in the tissues belonging to the group 
of products. 

Throughout their length the wide canals are lined with the same 
vibratile epithelium, which is continued into the perigastric cavities, 
the tentacles, and the pinnules (A. digitatum). It is formed of 
spherical or slightly polyhedral cells of small dimensions. Those of 
the surface bear extremely delicate vibratile cilia, which appear to 
be but few upon each cell, and exhibit imperfectly rhythmical 
movements. The body of the cells appears to be formed of granula- 
tions enclosed in a hyaline substance. No nucleus is to be dis- 
tinguished. 

On the other hand, the epithelium which clothes the surface of 


70 Miscellaneous. 


the tentacles turned towards the mouth is not vibratile. It pre- 
sents from place to place little projecting organs, about 0-025 millim. 
in length, sharp-pointed, slightly recurved, and endowed with no 
movement. Besides, this epithelium contains nematocysts, whilst 
there are none in the epithelium of the wide canals. But, on the 
other hand, their presence approximates the epithelium of the ten- 
tacles to the tissue which fills (but does not line, as has been stated) 
the small nutritive canals (kleine Saft-Kandle of Kélliker). These 
canals are entirely filled up by a granular substance individualized 
here and there into cells. These cells are irregular, polyhedral by 
reciprocal pressure, accumulated in the canals. They are more 
finely granular and more transparent than those of the vibratile 
epithelium, and have a small nucleus of a rose-colour, with ill-defined 
although very distinct contours. We find among these cells (and 
consequently in the heart of the coonenchyma) nematocysts exactly 
like those of the epithelium of the tentacles. 

This peculiarity, in conjunction with the extension of the funda- 
mental substance of the ceenenchyma into the polypes, and the ex- 
tension of the muscles of the polypes into the heart of the coenen- 
chyma, establishes between them such an analogy of structure that 
it is not possible, in general anatomy, to distinguish them, or to find 
other than morphological differences between these parts.—Comptes 
Rendus, Noy. 22, 1869, tome Ixix. pp. 1097-1099, 


Observations on the Nasal Glands of Birds. By M. Jozerr. 


The secretory apparatus which occupies the greater part of the 
frontal region in birds, and which opens into the nasal fossve, is 
more complex than has been supposed. It consists of two pairs of 
glands, closely applied to each other, but organically very distinct, 
and each having a distinct secretory duct: these two ducts run at 
first side by side; but in the nasal fossze their course becomes very 
different, and their orifices are very wide apart. The author de- 
scribes the structure of these glands and their anatomical relations. 
—Comptes Rendus, November 15, 1869, tome lxix. p. 1016. 


On Remains of the Beaver in New Jersey. 
By Mason C. WeExp. 


I take the occasion of the recent discovery of a very interesting 
and novel fact to me to communicate with you. It is the finding of 
a genuine beaver-meadow on the very top and near the brink of the 
Palisades. The edge of the meadow is about 175 paces from the 
“steep rocks,” which are, I suppose, about 500 feet above the tide- 
water in the Hudson river, and which rises so abruptly that a stone 
may in some places be thrown from the top into the water. 

Stumps gnawed off by beavers were found by workmen getting 
out swamp-muck on the land of Mr. Charles Nordhoff, and in the 
rear of his residence. The trench in which they were found (6 or 
7 feet below the surface) is about 10 feet deep; and though it was 


Lar A 


Miscellaneous. 71 


in the midst of the severest drought we had had for many years, 
water soon flowed into it. An eight-foot well on the place has con- 
tained a constant supply of water. An excavation made for a fish- 
pond, within ten rods of the steep rocks, filled up with water to the 
depth of two or three feet, without receiving a gill from rains or from 
the surface. Wells, springs, and brooks along the western slope and 
in the valley have gone dry in great numbers, while here and else- 
where along the top of the Palisades there has been an abundant 
supply. The beavers must have had permanent water. The size of 
the meadow is not more than four or five acres; the depth of the 
peat variable and uncertain; the bottom of the basin, where ex- 
posed, consists of a fine sandy hard-pan, with some small boulders 
and masses of trap; and the trap-rock in place is occasionally denuded. 

To appearance there is an abundance of water along this whole 
range, which cannot be accounted for by the rainfall ; and yet it is iso- 
lated by miles of intervening hills and valleys from equally high land. 
Permanent springs, little influenced by the season or by abundance 
or dearth of rain, are not rare on the western slope of the Palisades, 
and they are found on some of the highest points ; one quite noted 
one is near Crum’s Rock, the highest point.—Stlliman’s American 
Journal, November 1869. 


Note on the Respiration of the Nymphe of the Libellule. 
By M. Ovsrater. 


The author gives a very detailed description of all the parts of the 
tracheal system of these animals, and indicates the mode of termina- 
tion of the aériferous tubes in the branchial lamelle with which 
the walls of the rectum are furnished. In these respiratory appen- 
dages the tracheee form a multitude of capillary tubes arranged in 
loops, a mode of termination which has not previously been no- 
ticed.— Comptes Rendus, November 15, 1869, tome Lxix. p. 1016. 


The late Professor Micuart Sars, of Christiania. 


This eminent zoologist died on the 22nd of October last; and his 
loss will be much felt by all naturalists who have benefited, as I 
haye done, by his long, laborious, and conscientious investigation of 
the invertebrate fauna of the Norwegian seas. 

He was born on the 30th of August 1805, at Bergen, where his 
father was a shipowner. After finishing his academical studies at 
Christiania, and evincing at an early age his predilection for 
natural science, he entered into priest’s orders, and in 1830 be- 
came pastor at Kinn, in the diocese of Bergen. Ten years after- 
wards he had charge of the parish of Manger in the same diocese. 
As both these parishes were on the sea-coast, Sars had constant 
opportunities of pursuing his zoological researches. In 1829 he 
published his first essay, entitled ‘ Bidrag til Sdedyrenes Natur- 
historie,’ and in 1846 the first part of his celebrated work ‘ Fauna 
littoralis Norvegie.’ In 1854 he was appointed Professor Extra- 
ordinarius of Zoology at the University of Christiania, a position 


rT} fj J { ay 
PTS j}etteuns +10 4 
} 
VS 


(v4 Miscellaneous. 


which he filled up to the time of his lamented death with great 
honour to his country, and to the satisfaction of the whole world of 
science. His celebrity as a zoologist, as well asa paleontologist, was 
fully recognized by all naturalists and geologists, and he was elected 
a member of several foreign scientific societies. Our own distinguished 
countryman, the late Edward Forbes, individually showed his ap- 
preciation of Sars’s labours in eloquent pages (66 and 67) of his own 
posthumous work, ‘The Natural History of the European Seas,’ 
when he said, ‘‘ More complete or more valuable zoological researches 
than those of Sars have rarely been contributed to the science of 
Natural History; and the success with which he has prosecuted in- 
vestigations claiming not only a high systematic value, but also a 
deep physiological import, is a wonderful evidence of the abundance 
of intellectual resources which genius can develope, however se- 
cluded and wherever its lot be cast ;” and he added that the name 
of this Norwegian priest, “ who reaped reputation when seeking no 
more than knowledge, familiar to every naturalist in Europe and 
America, in Asia, and at the Antipodes—for there are great natura- 
lists settled far in the south, and many in the far east—is a sufficient 
proof that able work brings the rewards of applause and venera- 
tion, even when they be unasked for.” By the observations of Sars 
on the development of the Medusz he greatly advanced our know- 
ledge of that remarkable physiological phenomenon known as the 
alternation of generations, which Chamisso had first indicated in 
the Salpz. His last publication, ‘Mémoire pour servir a la con- 
naissance des Crinoides vivants,’ excited especial interest, by show- 
ing that a race of animals, supposed to have been extinct for a period 
so long as only to be measured by the duration of several past geolo- 
gical epochs, occurred in a living state in the abysses of the Norwe- 
gian seas. This discovery mainly induced the recent exploration of 
our own seas at great depths, which has produced such wonderful 
results ; and the living Crinoid, or “stone lily” (Rhizocrinus Lofo- 
tensis), has now been ascertained to inhabit many parts of the 
Atlantic from the Loffoden Isles to the Gulf of Mexico. The published 
works of Sars are seventy-four, and they are not less sound and 
valuable than numerous. One of his sons, Dr. George Ossian Sars, 
inherits the zoological inclinations and talent of the late Professor, 
and is second to none in the knowledge of the Sessile-eyed Crus- 
tacea. 

It is exceedingly to be regretted that, in spite of the most rigid 
economy, the large family of Professor Sars is left in very im- 
poverished circumstances, six of his children being wholly unpro- 
vided for. May I hope that naturalists and lovers of science will 
assist me in making a subscription for the temporary relief of this 
distressed family, and that they will by such tribute to his memory 
express their admiration of his career and services? I shall be 
very glad to receive any contributions, 

J. Gwyn JEFFREYS, 
25 Devonshire Place, Portland Place, London, 
21 December, 1869. 


between Wasps and Rhipiphori. 89 


the spirit. The Rhipiphorus differs in size, but-does not vary 
in size: this is not a distinction without a difference. There 
are two sizes; but these two are most constant. I have before 
me a series of about fifty of the smaller size taken out of the 
worker-cells, and they are as uniform in size as the workers 
of a hive of bees. The larger ones are scarcer, but all I have 
seen are of one size, too, and they all come from the female 
cells. All the little ones come from worker-cells, all the big ones 
from queen-cells, just as in the case of the wasps themselves, 
where all the little wasps come from the worker-cells, all the 
big ones (the queens) from the queen-cells; and to me this 
fact is a strong confirmation of the view that they must both be 
fed in the same way, viz. by the wasps. Whether, as in the case 
of bees, the wasps feed the tenants of the queen-cells with any 
special food, or use any special treatment by means of which 
the grubs in the queen-cells are developed into queens and 
those in drone-cells into drones, I believe is not known; but 
the presumption is in its favour. If it were mere increase of 
size that was produced, it might be said that it was due to 
more food and more space in which to grow; but more food 
should not alter the sex. The Lhdpiphorus, not being a wasp, 
would appear not to be affected by the same influence, so far 
as regards sex; for I have a male from a queen’s cell, but 
only benefited by it in the increase of its size; and it may be 
merely the effect of a longer continuance of feeding and a 
greater supply of food, as supposed by Mr. Smith; but then 
he will surely not carry his argument to the extreme of sup- 
posing that the mere difference between eating a worker-grub 
and a queen-grub is sufficient to account for the greater dimen- 
sions of the one in a queen’s cell over the one in a worker’s 
eel 

But there are other and not less serious difficulties in the 
way of Mr. Smith’s hypothesis. The Rhipiphorus-grub is 
described as attacking the wasp-grub at the head, ‘‘ the mouth 
of the former buried in the body of the latter just below the 
head.” Of course it must begin at the head: it eould not 
begin at the tail, which is out of sight at the base of the 
cell; and equally, of course, it must eat its way inwards head 
foremost. When it has completed its repast, by which time 
it is to attain its full size, its position must therefore necessa- 
rily be head inmost, and it must perforce pass its metamor- 
phosis in that position; for the cell is too narrow for it to turn 
in; and it cannot back out, for the entrance is closed by the 
lid. But what is the fact in nature? Putting aside the ex- 
ceptional cases of doubtful position in cells doubly occupied, 
the Rhipiphort have invariably their head to the mouth of 

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 4. Vol. v. 7 


90 Mr. A. Murray on the Relations 


the cell, exactly as the wasps, and fitting it as closely. This 
argument alone seems to me fatal to the hypothesis that the 
Lhipiphorus-larva limits itself to one victim. 

The alternative hypothesis, by which it is supposed to feed 
on many, which I shall now consider, will be found to be 
no sounder. Supposing that the footless parasite larva roams 
about, emptying cell after cell, and clearing off wasp-grub 
after wasp-grub, and developing and increasing in the normal 
way at the expense of many, until the time approaches when 
it is to take its last meal and pass into the pupa state, it must 
by that time have attained considerable dimensions. A full- 
grown wasp-grub might indeed find room in its cell for a tiny 
Lhipiphorus-grub fresh out of the egg; but one about to pass 
into the pupa state, and nearly as big as itself, is another thing 
altogether. But might it not begin upon it with half or the 
whole of its body out of its victim’s cell? No; because the 
cell has, by Mr. Smith’s hypothesis, to be spun up by its 
victim ; and it could not do this if the way were thus stopped, 
and, besides, it must not be so seriously injured or encroached 
on as to prevent its doing this. ‘There is plainly no room to 
hold both. Two quarts of beer are not to be got into one 
quart bottle by any process hitherto found out. But Mr. Smith 
may abandon his lid-theory. He may admit the ld to be 
spun by the Rhipiphorus. But even then he has something 
else to get over. How is he to get the RAipiphorus, which 
has entered the cell head foremost, turned round so as to have 
its head to the mouth of the cell? The creature, according to 
this theory, has the instinct of going head forward into the 
cells all the rest of its life. He must devise a new instinct for 
it to make it back out of the cell whose tenant it has eaten, 
and go on tail foremost into an empty cell when the proper 
time for it to back in comes. But if Mr. Smith admits all 
this—admits that the egg of the Rhipiphorus and of the wasp 
are the same and similarly placed, that the young larve of both 
are fed at first by the wasps, and that at last the mature larvee 
of both spin the lids to their cells themselves—I think he must 
also admit that the whole of the abstract grounds on which 
the Rhipiphorus might be expected to have a different economy 
from that of the wasp is swept away. If it is admitted that 
it and the wasp do all the things that it seems unlikely they 
should do, there ceases to be any reason for denying that their 
economy is alike out and out, and that the same system of 
feeding by the wasps with which they commenced is con- 
tinued to the end. 

I shall now say a word or two as to Mr. Stone’s observa- 
tions: and here [ may premise that, as will be evident to any 


between Wasps and Rhipiphori. 91 


one who compares Mr. Smith’s quotations from them and my 
brief allusion to them in my former paper, I had not Mr. 
Stone’s paper before me when I wrote. My purpose then was 
to record my own observations, not to attack Mr. Stone’s ; 
and as I could not lay my hands on his paper, I rested satis- 
fied with a quotation as to the nature of its contents, which I 
received from my friend Mr. Pascoe. But now that I have 
read it all, I see nothing, with the exception of the one case 
which I have already questioned, which appears to me inca- 
pable of explanation, or, when rightly interpreted, irrecon- 
cilable with the views I hold or with the observations I made. 
His interpretation is of course irreconcilable, but not the facts 
themselves. 

Mr. Stone only gives two actual cases of the alleged attacks 
of the Rhipiphorus-larva on the wasp-grub. He infers more, 
and Mr. Smith mfers more, from his finding, as he thinks, 
“these creatures retaining the skin and mandibles of their 
victim in their grasp even after they have passed into the 
pupa state.”” I shall speak to that immediately—one thing at a 
time; but as to actual cases of this attack, the two given by 
Mr. Stone are the only two recorded by him or by any other 
person whatever. Of part of the first I have already, to a 
certain extent, suggested an explanation ; but a portion of it 
remains which is very difficult of explanation. He opens the 
sealed lid of a cell in which should be a pupa, finds in it a 
wasp-larva with a minute Rhipiphorus-larva attached to it 
with its mouth firmly buried in the body of its victim just 
below the head; and it appeared to have only very recently 
fastened on its victim. May it not be possible that, m han- 
dling the nest and picking out the larve from the cells, Mr. 
Stone had inadvertently dropped this minute Rhipiphorus 
from his foreeps into either this newly opened cell or another 
beside it which he confounded with it ? If it fell upon a larva, 
of course there is nothing to be surprised at in its eating it, as 
the wasp-grub would have done with it if it had got the first 
chance. Both are admitted to be carnivorous; and that they 
should eat each other when they have the opportunity 1s 
only what might be expected. That those which I found 
living amicably together, two in the same cell, did not attack 
each other, was no doubt due to their having been brought up 
together and sufficiently fed otherwise. They were like the 
members of a young family of lions, which, although ready 
enough to carry death and destruction with them out of doors, 
live in peace and harmony at home. The fact that the little 
Rhipiphorus had only commenced its attack is, I think, in 
favour of this supposition. It is against all the rules of pro- 

fi 


92 Mr. A. Murray on the Relations 


bability that the cell should have been opened at that precise 
conjuncture of time that it began its attack. It is also still 
more unlikely that, having been sealed up with it, it should 
not have sooner made its attack. It is so disrespectful to the 
instinct of the Rhipiphori that the parent should have laid an 
egg in a cell already tenanted, and within reach of the jaws 
of the tenant, that I shall not suggest that alternative. 

As to the Rhipiphorus-pupe retaining the skin and mandi- 
bles of the grub they have eaten in their grasp, which Mr. 
Stone alleges of this one and of others which he subsequently 
observed, it is obviously a somewhat ludicrous blunder arising 
from a confusion of head and tail. I presume that by retain- 
ing in their grasp, he means holding in their jaws; they have 
no legs or claws to grasp with. But he must have forgotten 
that the parasite began at the head and, of course, finished off 
at the tail, and that it therefore should not be the mandibles 
that “it retained in its grasp,” but the other end. But it 
seems to me clear that he had observed the old cast skin of 
the larva, which lies at the bottom of the cell, sticking to the 
tail of the pupa, not retained in its mouth. We know that the 
tail forms a powerful sucker; and, of course, it sucks up into 
its cup, like the bottom of a seaman’s lead, anything that 
is lying loose at the bottom; and we know, too, that the last 
cast skin of a larva is very often found adhering to the 
chrysalis. We know, also, that when the larva undergoes 
its transformation, its muscles undergo a complete degrada- 
tion, becoming like milk, and all muscular power on the 
part of the pupa at that particular period vanishes. As 
the change goes on, the muscular power is restored by the 
re-formation or consolidation of the muscles; but the idea of 
a pupa holding anything in its jaws by the tenacity of its 
muscular power seems to me an impossibility. I have only 
to add that none of my pupe (and I have a number preserved 
in Canada balsam) has either skin or mandibles in its jaws, 
but most of them have them still adhering to the tail. This 
fact seems to prove that, like my pup, Mr. Stone’s must have 
had their heads to the mouth of the cell, instead of in the posi- 
tion which his and Mr. Smith’s hypothesis requires, at its base. 

Next, as to the second and only other case of a Rhipiphorus- 
larva taken in the act of attacking a wasp-grub. The state- 
ment is as follows :—“ I was fortunate in discovering a small 
larva of I?hipiphorus firmly attached to its victim ; both were 
dead, and had become partially dried, so that, when immersed 
in spirits, they did not separate, but remained attached just as 
they were before death.” 

This seems to me to be a case of a double occupation of 


between Wasps and Rhipiphori. 93 


one cell, similar to those which came under my notice ; 
and the attachment of the one to the other is probably no- 
thing more than what may be seen in every bottle of in- 
sects sent home from abroad or collected at home: some of 
the dying insects in their mortal agony have seized the 
nearest object with their mandibles, and arrive with a leg 
or some other part of their neighbour’s body in their mouth, 
still firmly clasped in the death grip,—that 1s, supposing that 
the jaws of the one really are fastened in the body of the 
other. It may be only a mutual adhesion by lesion of the 
skin in the process of decay or drying up. I hope to see the 
specimen in Mr. Smith’s hands before this goes to press ; and 
it I do, and it contains any information, I will mention it in 
a postscript. 


P.S. Since writing the above, I have seen the specimen in 
Mr. Smith’s possession, and find it presenting almost exactly the 
same appearance as the specimen which I have above alluded to 
and which I have placed in the Collection of Economie Ento- 
mology in South-Kensington Museum. There are no means 
of saying whether the larve are merely in juxtaposition or if 
one has its jaws fastened on the other ; but both are well grown, 
and except where they touch each other (where there is some 
lesion) they are uninjured. I have no doubt it is a case of 
double occupation of one cell, of the same nature as those de- 
scribed by me, and that, if the lesion (which I attribute to 
the pressure of the one upon the other) is not so great as to 
have destroyed the parts, Mr. Smith, on separating them, 
would find that they were not fastened to each other at all. 

I had also the pleasure of showing to Mr. Smith my speci- 
mens of pupze with the cast skin still sticking to their tail ; 
and I think he will no longer regard Mr. Stone’s observation 
of these cast skins as proof ‘of these creatures retaining the 
skin and mandibles of their victims in their grasp,” nor as 
additional observed instances of the attack of the wasp-grub 
by Lhipiphorus-larve. As I stated at the outset, these ob- 
served instances are reduced, nominally, to two, but really 
only to one,—one of the two being that above mentioned, 
which I maintain is not an instance of attack at all, but of 
double occupation of cell; and the other, of actual devouring, 
which I have endeavoured to account for, but which, whether 
my explanation be the true one or not, is, I feel perfectly con- 
vinced, not to be regarded as a genuine normal example of 
the habits of the animal, but as arising from some error of 
observation. 


94 Mr. F. P. Pascoe on Additions to 


XII.— Additions to the Tenebrionidee of Australia &e. 
By Francis P. Pascor, F.L.S., F.Z.8., &e. 


THE following additions to the list of Australian Tenebrionide 
are mostly derived from a select collection sent me by Mr. 
George Masters, who has lately been collecting in Queensland 
and in Western Australia. ‘The value of the collection was 
greatly increased by notes of the habits or other particulars 
of the species composing it. Among the three or four new 
genera here described, the most interesting perhaps is one be- 
longing to Bolitophaginee (Mychestes), which frequents rotten 
wood in which probably some minute fungus has made its 
appearance. A few species remain for further investigation, 
some not being in sufficiently good condition for description. 
In the collection, but not belonging to the Tenebrionide or 
even to the Heteromera, was a remarkable new form*, appa- 
rently of Monotomide, found in ants’ nests,—also examples of 
Erichson’s curious genus Ancistria, hitherto known only from 
India, and of which no species occurred in the wonderfully 
rich collections made by Mr. Wallace in the intervening Ma- 
layan islands. 


Scymenat amphibia. 


S. ovalis, pallide testacea, subnitida; scutello valde transverso ; 
elytris sulcato-punctatis, punctis minutis. 

Hab. King George’s Sound (sea-shore, burrowing in the 
sand). 

Oval, moderately convex, pale testaceous, slightly nitid ; 
head finely punctured, line of separation between the clypeus 
and front not sharply defined, but of a darker colour ; antennz 
nearly as long as the breadth of the head, the outer joints 
slightly moniliform ; prothorax rather finely punctured, the 
apex very slightly emarginate; scutellum very transverse ; 
elytra suleate-punctate, the punctures small, placed in shallow 
grooves, the intervals very minutely, almost obsoletely punc- 
tured; tibiee and tarsi roughly ciliated, the latter somewhat 
slender. Length 3 lines. 

In general appearance this species closely resembles the 
common Phaleria cadaverina of our southern coasts, and pro- 
bably, like it, preys on dead animal substances when it has 
the opportunity. My. Masters says that it is found ‘“ burrow- 

* Since this was written, I have seen reason to believe that this is the in- 
sect described by the Count of Castelnau, in the Rey. et Mag. de Zoologie 
for September, p. 356, under the name of Nepharis alata. It is referred 
to the Colydiide, and “ perhaps near Cossyphodes,” and figures are given 
(pl. 18. figs.4,5). The two specimens in the Count’s possession were 
very imperfect. 

+ Pascoe, Journ. of Entom. ii. p. 455. 


the Tenebrionide of Australia Le. 95 


ing in the sand, generally above, but often below, high-water 
mark.’ Scymena differs inter alia from Phaleria in its deeply 
emarginate clypeus. As the genera of the Trachysceline to 
which it belongs*have been much increased since M. Lacor- 
daire’s volume on the Heteromera was published, the follow- 
ing table may be useful :— 


Antenne eleven-jointed. 
Antenne longer than the head. 
Prothorax closely applied to the elytra. 


Elytra ciliated at the margins.............. Ecripsis, Pase. 
Elytra not ciliated at the margins .......... Phaleria, Latr. 
Prothorax not closely applied to the elytra .... Hyocis, Pasc. 


Antenne shorter than the head. 
Anterior tarsi retractile. 
Intermediate and posterior tarsi elongate, fili- 
PORE Gt nctahe sitet tmciend ioe eoiserehe + scab ein ernle eee Isarida, Pase. 
Intermediate and posterior tarsi short, stout. . Ammobius, Guér. 
Anterior tarsi not retractile. 
Antenne with an abrupt three-jointed club .. Cherodes, White. 
Antenne gradually stouter outwards. 
Clypeus deeply emarginate .............. Seymena, Pase. 
Clypeus entire anteriorly. 
Last tarsal joint as long as the rest toge- 


LIL ATETE eters Fut SIRES Ato ence eens PN Ammidium, Ey. 
Last tarsal joint shorter than the rest 
together. 
Posterior tarsi filiform, elongate ...... Emypsara, Pase. 


Posterior tarsi short, stout. 
Last joint of maxillary palpi securi- 


POPU ck ic chce sa cles He Beeson Saxe s Sphargeris, Pase. 
Last joint of maxillary palpi fusiform Anemia*, Casteln. 
Ami aR aS TOR |OPMIOd kos recite ane wa mie i tet ast cleo and Trachyscelist, Latr. 


Byrsaxt saccharatus. 


B. oblongo-quadratus, indumento albescente tectus; prothorace 
utrinque antice explanato, postice eroso, disco supra valde gibboso 
producto ; elytris grosse tuberculatis. 


Hab. Queensland (Pine Mountain, near Ipswich, in a 
Boletus). 


Oblong-quadrate, covered above with a thick spongy-look- 


* This genus, founded on an African (Senegal) insect, I have not seen ; 
its place here may be somewhat doubtful. M. Lacordaire unites it, erro- 
neously, with Ammidium (Gen. y. p. 725). A rare European insect (A. 
sardoa) is referred to it. 

+ M. Duval is the only author who has given the correct number of 
antennal joints in this genus (Gen. Col. d’Eur. ili. p. 288). In reference 
to his figure (pl. 71. fig. 3526), I have failed to detect the moniliform 
structure of the club, and the basal joint is much larger and curved 
almost at a right angle. It must be recollected, however, that the whole 
antenna is not larger than the point of a fine needle, 

{ Pascoe, Journ. of Ent. i. p. 42. 


96 Mr. F. P. Pascoe on Additions to 


ing whitish substance ; head deeply sunk in the prothorax, 
the anterior portion spreading into two shortly triangular 
horns; prothorax with a very compressed disk, forming an 
oblique elevated tuberculate lobe, extending over the head, 
behind which are two erect well-marked conical tubercles, 
each side anteriorly expanding into a fan-shaped, strongly 
erenated margin, but posteriorly deeply and erosely emargi- 
nate, so as to present a large and irregular space between 
these fan-shaped expansions and the elytra; scutellum appa- 
rently large and triangular, but its limits ‘indistinct >; elytra 
nearly quadr ate, the whole surface more or less tuberculate : 
the disk almost vertically elevated, with two conical tubercles 
at the base on each side, and towards the suture a line composed 
of four or five large triangular tubercles, the last being by far 
the largest ; a row of six smaller tubercles externally on the 
descending 'gide of the disk, the margin moderately expanded 
and regularly and coarsely crenato- ~tuberculate, the apical 
tubercle diverging slightly from its fellow ; body beneath co- 
vered with a layer of the same spong -y-looking substance as 
that above mentioned, but thinner; legs ferruginous, with a 
sprinkling of the same ’ substance ; antenne with the last three 
joints forming a distinct club. Length 24 lines. 

A remarkable and very distinct species, which I hope to 
figure in a future communieation, with further remarks on this 
and other members of its subfamily, including the following 
new genus. 


MYCHESTES. 
(Subfamily Bozrropyscin 2.) 


Antenne clavate, 10-articulate ; clava biarticulata. 
Tibie antice subfusiformes. 
Elytra ovata ; metasternum breviusculum. 


Head broadly transverse, the clypeus not cornuted ; anten- 
nary ridge simple. Eyes ‘transverse, entire. Antenne cla- 
vate , 10-jointed ; scape elongate, the third joint as long as the 
scape, the rest to the eighth oblong ovate, the last two form- 
ing an ovate club, Prothorax transverse, rounded but not 
expanded into a border at the sides; the disk gibbous towards 
the apex, overhanging and concealing the head from above. 
Elytra ovate, convex, closely applied to the prothorax ; the 
epipleuree indeterminate, Legs moderate; femora not thick- 
ened; tibize subfusiform, scarcely compressed ; tarsi with the 
terminal joint as long, or nearly as long, as the rest together. 
Pro- and mesosterna simple. Metasternum short. 
This genus differs from Orcopagia (ante, vol. iii. p. 30) 


the Tenebrionide of Australia &e. 97 


chiefly in the form of the elytra and in the short metasternum, 
the latter character being an exceptional one in its subfamily. 
The female apparently only differs from the male in being 
broader and more bulky. 


Mychestes lignarius. 


M. fuscus vel fusco-ferrugineus, squamulis pallidioribus dispersis, 
supra fortiter tuberculatus. 


Hab. Queensland (in rotten wood). 


Dark brown or ferruginous brown, covered with loosely set 
small paler scales, and strongly tuberculate above ; antennary 
ridge convex anteriorly ; clypeus truncate, its junction with 
the head forming a broad deep groove; prothorax broader 
than the elytra, much rounded and bituberculate at the sides ; 
the disk with a double row, slightly arched forwards, each of 
four tubercles; scutellum rounded, prominent; elytra ovate, 
raised at the sides, somewhat flattish above, each with a row 
of three large tubercles not contiguous to the suture, with a 
fourth but smaller tubercle in the same line behind, and at 
the sides seven nearly as large and irregularly arranged in 
two rows; lees somewhat hispid, the claws ferruginous ; an- 
tenn slightly setulose, the third joint as long as the two next 
together. Length 4 lines. 


ISOSTIRA. 


(Subfamily Oprarri2.) 
Clypeus apice integer ; /abrum transversum, haud sinuatum. 
Palpi maxillarum securiformes. 
Prothorax elytris arcte aptatus. 
Epipleure elytrorum postice deficientes. 


Of this genus I have only a single specimen, and, as the 
males (and commonly the females) of the Opatrine have 
mostly dilated anterior tibize, whilst this has them of the ordi- 
nary form, it is possibly a female; or the character may be 
common to both sexes. The genus, however, allied to Opa- 
trum, Fab., in the last three characters of the above diagnosis, 
is essentially differentiated by the clypeus and upper lip. The 
antenne are rather short, the last six joints moniliform, form- 
ing a tolerably distinct club; of these the seventh to the tenth 
are very transverse; the labial palpi arise from the central 
portion of the labium, and not from its base as in Opatrum 
(O. sabulosum). The prothorax is more convex and overhangs 
the head, and is closely applied to the elytra. All the tibiz 
are subfusiform or a little contracted at the extremity. The 
tarsi are slender and villous beneath. 


98 Mr. F. P. Pascoe on Additions to 


Tsostira crenata. 


I. supra nigra, infra rufo-castanea; antennis pedibusque rufis ; pro- 
thorace lateraliter crenato; elytris acute costatis. 

Hab. Queensland (under bark of decaying trees). 

Oblong, black above; head vertical, rather finely and closely 
punctured ; eyes nearly entire; prothorax covered with a dull 
brownish exudation, its sides distinctly crenated, the disk 
raised and having anteriorly two short strongly elevated lines 
or ridges; scutellum rounded behind, indistinct; elytra glossy 
black (from abrasion ?), each with five narrow sharply elevated 
ridges and a prominent line at the margin separating the epi- 
pleura from the upper portion, intervals of the ridges with two 
lines of shallow foveze; body beneath reddish chestnut; legs 
and antenne pale reddish. Length 3 lines. 


Omolipus® cyaneus. 


O. supra cyaneus, nitidus, infra fusco-castaneus, antennis pedibusque 
rufis glaberrimis; elytris fortiter seriatim et confertim punctatis. 


Hab, Nicol Bay. 

Very dark glossy blue above; head and prothorax very 
smooth and finely punctured; the latter a little gibbous ante- 
riorly, the sides well rounded, the base and apex of nearly 
equal breadth ; scutellum triangular; elytra rather narrowly 
ovate, strongly seriate-punctate, the punctures approximate, 
the intervals of the lines very narrow and convex ; body be- 
neath brownish chestnut, very glabrous; legs and antenne 
reddish, smooth. Length 44 lines. 

Mr. Masters also finds this species at King George’s Sound, 
under the bark of growing trees. It is at present the only 
one known not entirely black above. 


Pteroheleust arcanus. 

P. latissime ovatus, brunneo-piceus, paulo nitidus ; elytris singulatim 
unicostatis, lineisque subelevatis granulatis instructis, marginibus 
late foliaceis. 

Hab. Queensland (Port Denison, under bark of living trees). 

Broadly ovate, brownish pitchy, slightly nitid; head im- 
punctate; the clypeus, marked off by a fine line, broad and 
rounded anteriorly; prothorax very short, deeply and nar- 
rowly emarginate at the apex, the middle of the disk with two 
conspicuous fovez ; scutellum transversely triangular; elytra 
moderately convex, with broad foliaceous margins raised and 
thickened at their edges, each elytron with a glossy elevated 


* Pascoe, Journ. of Ent. i. p. 127, 
+ De Breme, Essai &e. p. 27. 


the 'Tenebrionide of Australia &e. 99 


ridge or line near the suture, terminating posteriorly in a 
number of small granules, a series of about six more or less 
elevated longitudinal lines, dotted with granules, on the rest of 
the elytron, one*of these between the suture, which is also 
marked by a similar line, and the ridge, the remainder, of 
which the second and fourth are the most prominent, exter- 
nally, the intervals of the lines minutely punctured in two 
rows ; body beneath and legs glossy chestnut-brown. Length 
9 lines. 

Broader than P. piceus, Kirby, and strongly differentiated 
from every other species by the sculpture of its elytra. 


Pieroheleus asellus. 
P. ovalis, utrinque paulo incurvatus, fuscus, vix nitidus ; prothorace 


obsolete punctato ; elytris lineatim leviter punctatis, marginibus 
latitudine omnino eequalibus. 


Hab, Queensland (under bark of fallen trees). 


Oval, the outline equally rounded and rather obtuse at both 
extremities, the sides a little incurved, moderately convex, 
blackish brown, scarcely shining ; head and prothorax covered 
with exceedingly minute punctures, the margins of the latter 
gradually passing into the disk; scutellum transversely and 
eurvilinearly triangular; elytra linearly punctured, the punc- 
tures rather small, the fifth and eighth intervals between the 
lines a little broader than the rest, the margins concolorous, 
narrow, of equal breadth throughout, and agreeing with those 
of the prothorax ; body beneath and legs glossy brown ; an- 
tenn short, the last jot nearly circular. Length 43-5 lines. 

Resembles P. peltatus, De Br., but much more convex, 
nearly opaque, the margins of the prothorax and elytra much 
narrower and concolorous with the rest of the upper surface. 


Heleus*® Mastersiz. 


H. late obovatus, fuscus, squamositate grisea tenuiter tectus, setu- 
lisque erectis nigris instructus, in utroque elytro carina acute 
elevata, apicem haud attingens. 


Hab. Western Australia (Salt River, under stones). 


Broadly obovate, dark brown, ‘covered with a loose greyish 
dust-like squamosity and furnished above with short erect 
black bristles; eyes approximate, nearly covered by the pro- 
thorax; the latter impunctate, nearly semicircular, not narrowed 
at the base, the margin broad, slightly concave, the centre 
with a narrow very distinct longitudinal ridge not quite ex- 
tending to the base; scutellum transverse; elytra as broad at 


* Latreille, Rég. An. ed. 1, iii. p. 301. 


100 Mr. F. P. Pascoe on Additions to 


the base as long, broadest behind the middle, sides of the disk 
very convex, the margins moderately foliaceous, irregularly 
punctured, the intervals of the punctures with short bristles, 
the suture finely raised, and at a short distance on each side 
of it a strong carina not reaching to the apex, another, but 
nearly obsolete, at the same distance on the outer side; body 
beneath and legs dull brown, the latter especially covered with 
short hairs. Length 64-73 lines. 

Allied in form to H. Peroni, De Bréme (Boisd.?), which, 
however, is a perfectly glabrous species, except as to the legs. 


Saragus* floccosus. 


S. late ovatus, fulvo-testaceus, subtiliter punctulatus; prothorace 
apice profunde et anguste emarginato; elytris haud carinatis, 
sutura elevata. 


Hab. Queensland (Wide Bay, on trees; Brisbane, &c.). 


Broadly ovate, moderately convex, fulvous testaceous, mi- 
nutely punctulate ; head small, eyes nearly contiguous; an- 
tenn ferruginous ; prothorax short, very transverse, brownish 
testaceous, the apex narrowly and deeply emarginate ; elytra 
not carinate, the suture raised, the expanded margins rather 
narrow ; body beneath and legs dark brown, shining ; margins 
of the elytra beneath broad, glossy testaceous, minutely punc- 
tulate. Length 6 lines. 

All the specimens I have seen of this insect have been 
covered with a close-set white flocculent substance, which 
Mr. Currey, than whom there could be no higher authority, 
considered to be a fungus belonging to the genus Jsaria of 
Persoon, supposed to be the early condition of the Spheerie. 
This Saragus, Mr. Masters writes, is found “ on trees covered 
with a white lichen which the insects very much resemble.” 


Saragus patelliformis. 
S. subrotundatus, depressus, fuscus, fere glaber ; prothorace in medio 


excavato; elytris tenuiter punctatis, indeterminate costulatis, 
sutura anguste elevata. 


Hab. Western Australia. 


Nearly round, depressed, blackish brown, somewhat shining, 
and nearly glabrous; head small, finely punctured, the inter- 
vals of the punctures granuliform ; prothorax finely punctured, 
the disk narrow, with a well-marked central impression, each 
of the dilated margins as broad as the disk; scutellum very 
transversely triangular; elytra rather finely but irregularly 


* Erichson, Wiegm. Arch. 1842, i. p. 171. 


the Tenebrionidx of Australia cc. 101 


punctured, indistinctly ribbed, the suture raised into a finely 
marked narrow carina; body beneath dull black, the margins 
of the elytra glossy ; legs slightly hairy. Length 4-5 lines. 

A depressed form allied to S. Duboulati, Pasc., but, inter 
alia, with a very distinctly elevated suture. 


Saragus tincisus. 

S. obovatus, fuscus, opacus, postice convexior; prothorace lobo 
gibboso postice angulato-emarginato; elytris singulatim uni- 
costatis, extus triseriatim tuberculatis. 

Hab. New South Wales (Mudgee, under stones). 


Obovate, dark brown, opaque; head and prothorax covered 
with short minute ridges (except the centre of the latter), 
and more or less longitudinal or slightly oblique ; eyes not 
approximate, front rather concave; prothorax ca emargi- 
nate at the apex, the angles on each side produced, subacute, 
behind the middle a slightly gibbous lobe angularly emargi- 
nate posteriorly; scutellum broad, rounded behind; elytra 
gradually broader behind for about two-thirds of their length, 
the suture finely raised, each elytron with a stout costa near 
the suture, abruptly terminating near the commencement of 
the posterior declivity, the space between the two irregularly 
but finely punctured, between the costa and expanded margin 
three rows of small elevated tubercles ; body beneath and legs 
black, rather glossy. Length 10 lines. 

A very distinct species, approaching, but only to a limited 
extent, S. levicollis, Fab., and its allies. 


Saragus asperipes. 

S. breviusculus, obovatus, fusco-niger, opacus ; elytris lineatim sub- 
tiliter punctatis, marginibus angustis, haud corrugatis; tibiis 
tuberculato-hispidis. 

Hab. South Australia (Port Lincoln, under stones). 


Rather shortly obovate, brownish black, opaque; clypeus 
slightly emarginate ; head and prothorax finely but not closely 
punctured, the latter with the disk slightly convex, distinctly 
separated from the margins, and of a paler brown, raised and 
thickened at the edges; scutellum broadly transverse ; elytra 
more convex posteriorly, finely punctured in slightly irregular 
lines, every fourth interval between the lines slightly elevated, 
the margins very narrow and gradually obliterated posteriorly, 
not marked with transverse folds; body beneath and legs 
brown, slightly nitid; tibiae covered with small hispid tuber- 
cles; tarsi yellowish ferruginous ; antenne with the last joint 
nearly circular. Length 5-6 lines. 


102 My. F. P. Pascoe on Additions to 


Allied to S. simplea*, Hope, but shorter and more convex, 
with a narrow margin to the elytra, and hispid tibie. The 
former species has the elytral margins marked with delicate 
transverse folds. 


Saragus confirmatus. 


S. obovatus, niger, subopacus; elytris singulatim quadricostatis, 
costis apicem versus evanescentibus, marginibus obsoletis. 


Hab. West Australia (Mr. Duboulay). 
Rather broadly obovate, black, slightly opaque ; head finely 


punctured, broad in front, the clypeus not emarginate; pro- 
thorax very minutely punctured, the disk slightly convex, 
distinctly separated from the margins, which are unicolorous 
and not thickened at the edges; scutellum broadly transverse; 
elytra more convex poster iorly, impunctate, but closely cover ed 
with minute granules, each with four elevated lines gradually 
disappearing posteriorly, the first and third strongly marked, 
the fourth nearly obsolete, the suture raised, the margins not 
dilated, except very slightly at the anterior angles, and form- 
ing a narrow elevated edge ; body beneath and femora brownish 
black, finely punctured; tibize minutely spinulous; tarsi slightly 
ferruginous ; antenne blackish, the last joint nearly circular, 
ferruginous. Length 6 lines. 

Narrower than the last (asperipes), but at the first glance 
somewhat similar; it is, however, a very distinct species, and 
the elytra are totally destitute of dilated or foliaceous margins; 
but there is such a gradual approach to this in some other 
species as almost to take its absence out of the category of 


generic characters. 


Adeliumt geminatum. 


A. fusco-cupreum, subnitidum ; prothorace pone medium valde in- 
curvato, supra canaliculato; elytris interrupte striatis. 


Hab. Queensland (Wide Bay, under logs in dense scrubs). 


Dark copper-brown, faintly nitid; head finely and iregu- 
larly punctured, the clypeus narrow anteriorly and rather 
strongly emarginate; prothorax transverse, irregular above, 
finely and unequally punctured, with a slender longitudinal 
groove, the sides strongly rounded, and behind the middle 
deeply incurved and terminating in a sharp angle; elytra 
broader than the prothorax, subovate, rounded at the shoul- 
ders, interruptedly striate, the alternate intervals of the dorsal 


* This species appears to me to be the same as S. carinatus, De Br., of 
which possibly S. se/phoides of the same authority is only a variety. 
+ Kirby, Trans. Linn, Soe. xii. p. 420. 


the Tenebrionide of Australia kc. 103 


strie rather broader than the others; body beneath and legs 
dark copper, the former nearly glabrous, the latter with a few 
scattered hairs. Length 5-6 lines. 

In outline approaching A. cisteloides, Ey., and its allies ; 
but the form of the prothorax and the rather peculiar sculp- 
ture of the elytra make it a very distinct species. 


Licinoma* elata. 
ZL, cuprea, nitida; elytris profunde punctato-striatis ; tarsis longius- 
culis, fulvis. 
Hab. Queensland (Wide Bay, under logs and stones). 


Copper-brown, shining, and finely punctured as in L. nitida 
(ante, ser. 4. vol. ili. p. 140), but longer, the prothorax more 
rounded at the sides, considerably narrower, and much more 
finely punctured above; scutellum distinct and triangular ; 
elytra deeply sulcate, the interstices narrow, but very convex 
and finely punctured, the punctures continued to the sulci, but 
scarcely apparent in the sulci themselves ; the most trenchant 
difference is that the anterior tarsi in both sexes have not the 
second and third joints short and transverse, as in my speci- 
mens of LZ. nitida, but triangular, shortly so in one, probably 
the male, and longer and ovate in the others: in the typical 
form of the genus the claw-joint is nearly as long as the 
rest together, while in the present species the four basal joints 
are together half as long again as the claw-joint; in both the 
joints of the antenne are connected by short peduncles (or 
moniliform). Length 5 lines. 


Dinoriat celioides. 
D, cuprea, nitida; elytris sat late punctato-striatis, marginibus con- 
coloribus. 


Hab. Queensland. 


Copper-brown, shining; head rather finely and distantly 
punctured ; the clypeus concave in the middle, the suture 
straight ; prothorax transverse, finely punctured; scutellum 
very transverse, short, indistinct ; elytra obovate, rather finely 
punctate-striate, the intervals between the striz not approxi- 
mate, flattish, very delicately punctured, the margins and apex 
concolorous ; body beneath very glossy, reddish chestnut ; legs 
yellowish testaceous, the bases of the femora chestnut; palpi 
and antenne pale ferruginous, the last jomt of the latter 
broadly oval, much shorter than the two preceding together. 
Length 2? lines. 


* Pascoe, Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. ser. 4. vol. iii. p. 140. 
+ Pascoe, zbid. p. 141. ; 


104 Mr. F. P. Pascoe on Additions to 


More convex than DP. picta, and the eyes not quite so round. 
The scutellum of the latter was, from some oversight, stated 
to be “narrowly,” instead of broadly, triangular, but it is not 
so transverse, although much more distinct than in the present 
species. 

Setrotrana* Mastersiv. 
S. oblonga, cupreo-metallica ; prothorace subplanato, marginibus 
integris; elytris ovatis, lineis interruptis elevatis, interstitiis bi- 
seriatim sub- vage punctatis. 


Hab. Queensland (Wide Bay, under logs in dense scrubs). 


Oblong, shining metallic copper; head roughly punctured, 
the clypeus broad, truncate anteriorly ; prothorax nearly flat 
above, minutely punctured, with a few much larger punctiform 
impressions irregularly scattered, the sides rounded, but a little 
incurved towards the base, the margins with a raised linear 
border; scutellum transversely triangular; elytra slightly 
convex, ovate, each with four raised interrupted lines, the in- 
tervals between them biseriately punctured, the punctures 
rather small and not approximate; body beneath and legs 
glabrous, brassy, and very glossy. Length 9 lines. 

A fine and very distinct species, with the sculpture of the 
elytra like that of S. catenulata. 


Seirotrana nosodermoides. 
S. subplanata, fusca, indumento umbrino dense tecta; prothorace 
lato, apice profunde emarginato, utrinque crenato; elytris inter- 
rupte costulatis. 


Hab. Queensland (Wide Bay, under logs). 


Rather flattish above, dark brown, covered with a dense 
umber-brown scaly crust, readily peeling off; head roughly 
impressed, a stout ridge on each side in front of the eye, 
meeting on the vertex, and forming with the clypeus a tri- 
angular space; prothorax longer than broad, the disk with 
five broadly impressed longitudinal grooves, the apex widely 
and deeply emarginate, the anterior angles peda, passing 
beyond the eyes, the sides coarsely crenated, and forming an 
obtuse angle at the middle, then slightly incurved to the base; 
scutellum semicircular; elytra ovate, each with five interrupted 
elevated lines, alternating with finer lines of the same charac- 
ter, the inner nearly contiguous to the suture, the intermediate 
spaces irregularly punctured; body beneath with an easily 
displaced reddish-brown crust; the legs with scattered ad- 
pressed hairs. Length 6 lines. 


* Pascoe, Journ. of Entom. vol. ii. p. 483. 


THE ANNALS 


AND 


MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 


[FOURTH SERIES. ] 


No. 26. FEBRUARY 1870. 


X.—WNote on the Sponges Grayella, Osculina, and Cliona. 
By H. J. Carrer, F.R.S. &e. 


AT the suggestion of my kind friend Dr. J. K. Gray I have 
examined Schmidt’s Osculina polystomella and some living 
species of Cliona, for the purpose of ascertaining how far 
these sponges were allied to Grayella cyathophora (which 1 
described and figured in the ‘ Annals,’ ser. 4. vol. iv. p. 189, 
Sept. 1869), with the following results. 

And first as regards Osculina polystomella (Schmidt’s 
‘ Sponges from Algiers,’ 1868, second Suppl. to ‘ Sponges of the 
Adriatic Sea,’ 1862, pl. 1. figs. 1-13), it must be premised that 
this sponge was examined by the able author after preserva- 
tion in spirit, and that Lacaze-Duthiers, who contributed the 
specimen, furnished also figs. 1-8 of the illustrations. 

At first sight of the plate, one is inclined to say that this 
sponge is closely allied to Grayella, except that fig. 1, which 
is stated to represent its natural size, far exceeds Grayella 
cyathophora in the dimensions of its papillary elevations. 
Lacaze-Duthiers’s fig. 2 would represent the mammilliform 
vent, and figs. 3-7 the papilliform sieve-like orifices of the 
inhalant area, together with (fig. 8) their sarcodal columns 
and projecting spicules, in both Grayella and Osculina. But 
when we come to Schmidt’s description, then also comes a 
discrepancy, viz. that al/ these papilliform figures are stated 
to be excurrent orifices; and the only example of an incurrent 
or inhalant set is that in Schmidt’s fig. 11, where a few little 
apertures are situated on one side of the disk of a papilla 
marginated, but apparently unfringed, from contraction at or 
after death. 

It seems very probable to me, after the examination of 
Cliona northumbrica, Hancock, which I have just made (for 


Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 4. Vi ol. v. 6 


74 Mr. H. J. Carter on the Sponges 


this is the living species that I have had under observation), 
that Lacaze-Duthiers’s figures (viz. 1-8, which are the prin- 
cipal illustrations to Schmidt’s description) were made during 
life, and that Schmidt’s own (viz. 9-13 inclusive) have the 
contracted forms presented to Schmidt in the preserved speci- 
men. 

Although Schmidt’s section of the two papille (fig. 12), re- 
presenting the sarcodal columns in connexion respectively with 
large canals below them, while the latter, again, are stated to 
open on the surface by several little orifices between the co- 
lumns (that is to say, sieve-like), is exactly like the structure 
of the papilliform inhalant area of Grayella (see my figures, 
l.c.), yet in fig. 11 Schmidt represents an osculum, or large 
excretory orifice, in the centre of the marginated disk of a 
papilla, in addition to the sieve-like group of little pores close 
to the margin. If Schmidt be right in considering this an 
osculum and the group of smaller apertures “inhalant pores,” 
then we must infer that the osculum is in connexion with its 
own excretory canal, and that the pores have their own inha- 
lant canals or canal beside it, in which case this is an instance 
of the combination in one papilla of both organs, viz. the ex- 
current and incurrent system of canals respectively—a possible 
combination which I do not deny, but of which I have seen 
no example either in Grayella or Cliona. 

I say “if right,” because Schmidt’s observations having 
been made on a preserved specimen, his distinction of excur- 
rent and incurrent apertures must be made from resemblances, 
as, I think, is stated in his description. 

Now, if Lacaze-Duthiers’s fig. 8, representing a mammilli- 
form eminence terminated by a single large orifice, be viewed 
as an excurrent organ, and the fringed papille respectively 
with their sieve-like orifices as inhalant arex, then the analogy 
between Grayella and Osculina becomes very strong. But in 
Schmidt’s description, as before stated, they are all alike re- 
garded as excretory; there is no part illustrative of the great 
inhalant system but the little insignificant group of orifices 
placed on one side of the disk of a papilla otherwise devoted 
to the excretory system, as above mentioned. 

My impression of such orifices is that, for the most part, 
excretory openings are large, single, and simple, and that it 
is the oral ones which are tentaculated, fringed, or otherwise 
ornamented with useful appendages. In Actinta and Hydra, 
where there is but one orifice for both purposes, it is orna- 
mented ; but certainly in the Polyzoa and Ascidie, where 
there are two, it is the oral, and not the anal, orifice which is 
thus complicated. Hence, from analogy, I should be inclined 


Grayella, Osculina, and Cliona. 75 


to think that the fimbriated papille of Osculina were the in- 
halant, and the less ornamented curticonical ones, with large 
single apertures respectively, the excretory organs. So, ‘at 
first sight of the plate,’ as above stated, Grayella and Oscu- 
lina appeared to me to be very closely allied. 

Let us now see how far the study of Cliona in a living state 
assists us through these difficulties. 

On the 6th December, 1869, after a storm, I picked up on 
the beach at this place (Budleigh-Salterton, Devon) a speci- 
men of Laminaria, in the inner and vaulted portion of whose 
conical bunch of roots was fixed a small oyster-shell permeated 
by a species of Cliona, which subsequent examination proved 
to be that so faithfully described and figured by Mr. Albany 
Hancock as Cliona northumbrica, in the ‘ Annals,’ ser. 3. 
vol. xix. p. 237, pl. 7. fig. 1, April 1867. 

The shell in which the specimen was situated, having been 
released from the roots of the seaweed, was immediately placed 
in sea-water (renewed daily) and examined for eight days 
successively. It was about two inches in diameter, and origi- 
nally fixed obliquely upwards among the roots of the Lami- 
naria, some small ones of which were attached to its outer or 
convex side, while the inner or concave part of the shell was 
free from all root-attachment and faced the hollow part of the 
coniform foot-bunch. No doubt the Laminaria had been 
attached by its other roots to a rock but trusting too much to 
the surface of the otherwise unfixed oyster-shell led to its 
being torn from its site by the waves, and thus thrown upon 
the shore where I found it. 

There were twelve papille of different sizes scattered over 
the convex part of the shell, among the attachments of 
the roots of the Laminaria (which were all cut off short for 
better observation), and the same number on the concave sur- 
face or that directed towards the hollow cone of the root- 
bunch. Six of the latter were papilliform vents presenting 
respectively a more or less elongated conical form, truncated 
at the extremity and provided with a single large circular 
aperture, circumscribed, when fully extended, by a delicate 
thin margin. The rest of the papille on both sides were 
more or less expanded, or obversely conical, presenting a fim- 
briated surface radiating more or less from the centre,in which 
were irregularly scattered a few small circular orifices varying 
and less than 1-600th of an inch in diameter. | 

The fimbriated surface consisted of feather-like extensions 
based on groups or bundles of pin-like spicules pointed out- 
wardly, which, issuing with the soft sponge-substance of the 
papilla, were thrown apart as the sarcode raised itself upwards 

2 


76 Mr. H. J. Carter on the Sponges 


out of the circular hole in the oyster-shell, and thus, opening 
flower-like to the water, disclosed at the same time those 
beautiful feather-like appendages of the circumference, together 
with the minute pores of the centre, for inhalation. 

The form of the vents, too, if anything, when fully expanded, 
tended to a trumpet-shaped opening ; but the margin of all the 
orifices, both inhalant and excurrent, was minutely serrated by 
the projection of the pointed ends of spicules tied or webbed 
together by transparent sarcode, in which the denser parts, 
hanging about the thrown-aside spicules of the bundle, pro- 
duced the feather-like forms mentioned. ‘Thus the apparent 
fringe was not in separate portions, as figured of Osculina, 
but in the midst of the transparent sarcode. 

The largest of the papilliform inhalant arez did not exceed 
the 1-12th of an inch in diameter ; and they were all more or 
less different in shape, varying from a circle to an elongated 
ellipse. When fully expanded, the diameter of the head or 
inhalant area was always greater than that of the cylindrical 
body as it issued from the circular hole of the oyster-shell, 
and, although funnel-shaped at the commencement, became 
nearly flat when fully expanded. The body, too, was often 
inclined or bent to one side, so as to give a drooping position 
to the head, which, in the elongated elliptical forms, closed by 
approximation of the sides, and in the round ones by contrac- 
tion towards the centre. 

Although, when somewhat contracted and funnel-shaped, 
the inhalant area presented the appearance of an osculum, on 
no occasion were the two seen in the same papilla, as in 
Schmidt’s illustration, nor was there seen any transformation 
of the inhalant into the excretory papilla, nor vice versd, as 
might be anticipated from a knowledge of the internal struc- 
ture connected with these systems in sponges generally. The 
oscula and inhalant areze respectively and invariably continued 
the same. 

When first examined, the papille had all withdrawn them- 
selves within the margin of the holes in the oyster-shell, but, 
after rest, began gradually to issue, first in a conical form, 
when they appeared to be covered with minute black holes, 
which were the then bare ends of the pin-like spicules bris- 
tling in a radiating direction all over the surface of the cone. 
As, however, the sarcode ascended the spicules (and, so to 
speak, hung itself out upon them, probably for the purpose of 
aération) the whole top fell asunder into the fimbriated form 
mentioned; while the reverse quickly took place if, under 
this state, the papillee were touched with the point of a needle, 
proving the sensibility of sponges to a mechanical stimulus. 


Grayella, Osculina, and Cliona. 77 


No two papille, as before stated, presented exactly the same 
form; but the general plan in all was that described. 

When exposed to the direct rays of the sun, the inhalant 
areee all contracted, while the six vents, on the contrary, ap- 
peared to be, if anything, more expanded by the same stimulus, 
—showing, also, that sponges are sensible to light. The 
inhalant areas also contracted on motion, while the vents 
remained unaltered; so that, to observe the former in an 
expanded state, it was necessary to subject them to as little 
motion as possible while bringing them under microscopical 
examination. In short, the vents were seen to continue 
their office while that of the inhalant areze appeared to be 
suspended. 

I could see, with the microscope, particles issue from the 
vents, but could never do so, one way or the other, from the 
apertures of the inhalant aree; nor could I see any signs of 
an inhalant current in the latter by the addition of finely 
levigated solutions of both carmine and Indian ink, applied 
separately, such as, under similar circumstances, may always 
be seen in Spongilla. 

Then it should be remembered that the incarcerated Cliona 
is probably nourished by the remains of animal matter in the 
substance of the oyster-shell in which it burrows, while Spon- 
gilla and the free sponges must obtain it from the surrounding 
element: hence the inhalant area in the former may be much 
less active than in the latter; and hence particles of refuse 
matter may be seen to issue from the vents in Clona while 
the inhalant arez are closed. 

The largest holes of the vent-papille (which only contained 
one each) were 30-800ths of an inch in diameter, and the 
largest apertures in the inhalant aree about the 600th of an 
inch in diameter ; in short, the former were not much less than 
thirty times as large as the latter. 

Spicules.—The smooth, nearly straight, pin-like spicules 
of Cliona northumbrica, which are by far the largest, viz. 
73-6000ths or 1-82nd of an inch long in the interior, chiefly 
oceupy the papilla, where, although a little less in size, they 
exist exclusively of all others and are so numerous as to form 
the greater part of its bulk; the largest spinous curved fusi- 
form spicules, pointed at each end, which chiefly occupy the 
sarcode of the interior, are about 25-GO00Uths inch long ; and 
the minute sinuous ones which accompany them 3-6000ths of 
aninch. Thus we have the spicule-formula of C. northumbrica 
given by Mr. Hancock (J. c.), saving the unimportant trifling 
discrepancy in measurement. 

Lastly, similar sponge-substance to that of the interior, 
which was present in retiform patches on the exterior of the 


78 Mr. H. J. Carter on the Sponges 


shell, was found to be charged exclusively with spicules 
exactly like the large ones of Grayella, viz. smooth, straight, 
more or less cylindrical, round at one end and pointed at the 
other, 38-6000ths inch long,—a trifle, certainly, less in size, 
but this does not lessen the significance of the fact. 

To the retiform patches of the exterior, charged with the 
spicules just mentioned, may be added others of a similar kind 
without spicules, but composed of spherical vesicles and innu- 
merable small monociliated sponge-cells, not unlike the “ am- 
pullaceous sac”’ and its ciliated sponge-cells described in m 
account of the ‘ Ultimate Structure of Spongilla” (Annals, 
ser. 2. vol. xx. p. 22, pl. 1: 1857). 

To what, then, do these observations lead respecting the point 
in question ? Viz. to the conclusion that Grayella cyathophora, . 
Osculina polystomella, and Cliona northumbrica, if not the 
Clioniade generally, all belong to the same family. 

In Cliona northumbrica we have the fimbriated inhalant 
area and the single-holed papillary vent almost exactly like 
those figured of Osculina polystomella (1. c.), if we are to re- 
gard the latter as inhalant and excurrent openings respectively ; 
and as this inference is based upon observation of an allied 
species in the Uiving state, it seems to me more likely to be 
correct than Schmidt’s interpretation, from resemblances, of the 
offices of these parts on a dead one, however well preserved in 
spirit; that is, that Schmidt has, by his own mistake or that 
of others, assigned the wrong function to the fimbriated pa- 
pille. Surely that little group of pores placed subordinately 
by the side of an osculum in the same papilla cannot alone 
be illustrative of the great inhalant system of the beautiful 
Osculina! 

Again, the pin-like spicules of Osculina can hardly be said 
to differ from those of the Clioniade ; while in the fimbriated 
papille these are arranged in a radiated direction with their 
points projecting beyond the sarcode, just as the spicules are 
im the papilla of both Cliona northumbrica and Grayella cya- 
thophora. Indeed there are many pin-like_spicules of the 
former exactly like those of Osculina; and the clavate one, 
also given by Schmidt in fig. 13, is merely a variety of the 
nearly straight pin-like spicule when found among the latter. 

Then, as regards Grayella, it is remarkable that the patches 
of Cliona northumbrica on the outside of the oyster-shell and 
those of the interior should almost exclusively be charged re- 
spectively with the same kind of smooth straight, and curved 
spinous spicules which characterize Grayella (Annals, J. c.), 
while the pin-like or larger ones, exclusively of all others, 
occupy the papilla of Cliona and project beyond the sarcode, 
as the spicules in both Grayella and Osculina. 


Grayella, Osculina, and Cliona. 79 


Thus the presence of the same kind of papilliform inhalant 
and excurrent organs, and the same kind of spicules, arranged 
in the same manner in these three sponges, seems to me indu- 
bitably to claim for them all the same family. 

It might with justice be stated that the specimen of G'rayella 

which I described was also preserved in spirit, and that I also 
decided “ upon resemblances” the offices of the oscular and 
inhalant papille respectively ; and, further, it is possible that, 
in the living state, these papillae might have presented different 
forms; perhaps the latter might have presented a fimbriated 
margin. But, be this as it may, he must be obtuse indeed 
who could not see in my illustration of Grayella cyathophora 
(which is as true to nature as I could make it) what I saw in 
the actual specimen, viz. which is which; and it is this which 
I fancy that I can see in Lacaze-Duthiers’s illustrations of 
Osculina polystomella, chiefly through my observations on the 
living Cliona, although I acknowledge that the differences of 
the two systems in O. polystomella are not so unmistakably 
marked as they are in Grayella cyathophora. 

Grayella cyathophora and Osculina polystomella appear to 
me to be free forms of the Clioniade, such as the so-called 
genus Raphyrus, which is but a free form of Cliona celata. 

The piece of oyster-shell on which I have made my obser- 
vations is too free from foreign organisms, both animal and 
vegetable, for me to suspect that [have been confounding more 
than one kind of sponge with another, as has been imputed to 
Mr. Hancock by Dr. Bowerbank (Ray Soc. Pub, 1866, ‘ Mono- 
graph of Brit. Sponges,’ vol. ii. p. 216). Undoubtedly it is 

Cliona northumbrica, so truthfully deseribed and illustrated 
by Mr. Hancock in the ‘ Annals’ (l.c.), and under “ Pione”’ 
in Dr. J. E. Gray’s proposed arrangement of the Spongiade 
(Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond. May 9, 1867, p. 525). Undoubtedly, 
too, if the almost liquid Myxogastres can work their way 
through hard wood to the surface, if the like delicate endophytes 
Chytridium, Pythium, &c. can pierce the horn-like coverings 
of Alga, and the soft cell of Zygnema can dissolve its prison- 
walls for exit and conjugation, the amceboid sponge can burrow | 
among the layers of an oyster-shell for its subsistence—views so 
ably put forth by Mr. Hancock (/. c.) that I am only astonished 
how Dr. Bowerbank (op. cit. p. 221) could treat such “ patient 
merit” so unworthily. 

Almost all that I have stated was written in other and 
better words by one of my earliest and kindest friends and 
teachers, Dr. Grant, in 1827 (Edin. New Phil. Journ. vols. i. 
& ii.), who, at that comparatively early period in the investi- 
gation of the nature of the Spongiade, assigned the papilli- 


80 Mr. H. J. Carter on the Sponges 


ferous Cliona to the Zoophytes, from the form of its papille, 
probably, rather than from their function. 

Others have since verified his observations, although not 
altogether according with his conclusions ; and my introducing 
the former again here from personal examination, must plead 
for excuse only in the special object of comparison for which 
this examination has been instituted. 

I have stated that the pin-like spicules are chiefly confined 
to the papille, where, under certain conditions, they project — 
beyond the sarcode, and under others are more or less covered 
by it. They come under the designation of Dr. Bowerbank’s 
‘defensive spicules,” but seem no more to merit that appella- 
tion than thorns on rose-bushes. If I might presume to assign 
any special function to them, without infringing upon the 
illimitable uses for which every object in nature is provided, 
it would be that their chief service is to support the deli- 
cate sarcode when spread out like branchial appendages, for 
the purpose of aération. Of the uses of the other spicules 
with which the sarcode of Cliona northumbrica is charged, 
both externally and internally, I shrink from even hazarding 
an opinion. 

Lastly, I have above used the expression “ so-called genus 
Raphyrus,” of whose single species, viz. Raphyrus Griffithsi, 
this beach has afforded me several large and living specimens 
(one of which I have at this moment in sea-water under exa- 
mination); and I feel bound to state that whenever I have 
compared it with a fine specimen of Cliona celata found at 
Exmouth by my friend Mr. Parfitt, who kindly presented it 
to me, the result has. been a corroboration of Dr. Johnston's 
view, who regarded it as a free form of Cliona celata, and a 
complete subversion of the slender grounds on which Dr. 
Bowerbank has made it a separate genus (op. czt. vol. 11. 
pp. 215, 216). The specimen of Cliona celata which I have 
mentioned presents the same kind of raised areola, more or less 
plugged with sponge-substance, over the hole of the oyster- 
shell from which it protrudes, the same kind of cellular struc- 
ture interiorly, and the same form and size of pin-like spicule, 
with its slight capitate variations, as the so-called Raphyrus 
Griffithsii, which to me is but a coarse form of a sponge 
which, not having the cavities of a shell to support it, has to 
provide itself with a stronger architecture. 

I am not the first person, too, who has noticed Cliona 
northumbrica in this neighbourhood ; for it is mentioned by 
my intelligent friend Mr. Parfitt im his paper on the “ Marine 
and Freshwater Sponges of Devonshire,” printed in the 
Trans. Dev. Assoc. for Advancement of Sc. & Lit. 1868, 


Grayella, Osculiia, and Cliona. 81 


where, under Dr. Gray’s name of “ Pione,” he states that 
Cliona northumbrica is not uncommonly dredged off the south 
coast of Devon, “in Buccinum undatum and in the old valves 
of Cardium edule,” testifying at the same time to the ‘ excel- 
lent”? description of this species, in the ‘ Annals,’ by Mr. 
Albany Hancock. 

In my specimen, which is not much the worse for ten days’ 
confinement, there are no raised areole of sponge-substance 
(spicules and sarcode) bordering the holes in the oyster- 
shell, as in the specimens of Cliona celata and Raphyrus 
Grifithsti to which I have alluded ; and I think it not impro- 
bable that, although the papillae would be much contracted by 
death, still some of them would remain much beyond the 
holes in the oyster-shell, which, if dissolved off, would give 
them a similarly elevated position above the other sponge- 
substance to that presented by the papille in Grayella and 
Osculina. 


Postscript. 


Since the above was written, three or four of the inhalant 
papille, now in a semicontracted condition, on the concave 
side of the oyster-shell, have presented a single funnel- 
shaped hole in the centre respectively, which, being so much 
larger than the original apertures, led me to think that they 
must be vents; but on placing them under the microscope, 
particles were observed to be whirled into them, apparently in 
a spiral manner, showing at once that they were not vents, 
and affording positive evidence, which had not been before 
obtained, of the inhalant function of these papillee. 

The vents are still active, and the inhalant papille as sen- 
sitive to light as when first the Cliona was placed in con- 
finement (now thirteen days ago), which would hardly have 
been the case had the Cliona not been drawing its nourish- 
ment from the organic matter in the oyster-shell. On the 
other hand, a living piece of Raphyrus Griffithsti (which I 
regard as a free form of Cliona celata), and which was placed 
in sea-water renewed as often as that of the Cliona, ceased, 
after three days, to show any active signs of life what- 
ever. 

The papilla which presented respectively the single funnel- 
shaped hole in the centre were, with the exception of the rim, 
very like Schmidt’s figs. 10 & 11 of Osculina polystomella 
biG) 

Finally, it should be noticed that the papille in Cliona 
northumbrica ceased to present their fimbriated forms about 
the sixth day after confinement, and, showing signs of decline 


82. Mr. H. J. Carter on Grayella, Osculina, and Cliona. 


generally about the 18th, it was transferred to spirit and water 
for preservation. 

Dec. 31, 1869.—On this day I picked up on the beach, after 
a heavy gale from the south, among other living specimens of 
sponges, two compact portions, rounded off by friction among 
the shingle, each about 14 inch long, not quite so broad, 
and rather compressed, of a light yellow colour tinged with 
red, and presenting a single large hole at one part. They 
were portions of Halichondria suberea, Johnston (Brit. Spong. 
p- 139, pl. 12. figs. 4-6); and on making a longitudinal section 
of them respectively, each displayed the interior cavity of a 
univalve shell, about an inch long, with the spire and colu- 
mella complete; only the whole was composed of sponge-sub- 
stance, just as much as if it had been analogously lapidified 
by fossilization. Indeed, to use a mineralogical term, the 
sponge internally was a pseudomorph of the shell it had re- 
placed. How the cavity of the shell had been maintained 
during the transition can only be accounted for by the pre- 
sence of a hermit-crab (Pagurus), which, although still in one 
of the specimens, had quitted the other; so that the Pagurus 
must have been in the cavity of the shell all the time that it 
was being replaced, particle after particle, by the sponge—a 
process, however, which might have gone on very rapidly, 
as inferred by Montagu (ap. Johnston, p. 140, /. c.). 

This was not all; for each sponge had enclosed at the 
summit of the columella a little Murex (corallinus?), about 
four lines long, fresh in appearance, but empty, on which were 
deposited, both inside and out, but chiefly between the coste, 
lines of spherical gemmules, of a yellow colour, and varying 
from 4- to 8-830ths of an inch in diameter, which gemmules 
were themselves already sunk to almost half their diameter 
into the substance of the Murex. 

The gemmule was composed (when nearly dry, in which 
state the specimens were examined) of a minutely dimpled, 
amber-looking, soft, coriaceous envelope, lined by one more 
delicate, colourless, and transparent, containing a number of 
spherical cells about 1-1660th of an inch in diameter—in 
short, just like the gemmule or so-called seed-like body of 
Spongilla, whose grouping (here exclusively round the little 
Murex) they otherwise generally resembled. 

This at once decides the question of the possibility of cer- 
tain sponges feeding on the organic matter of shell-substance, 
just as certain Fungi feed on woody tissue. And in this in- 
stance, we must regard this sponge (Halichondria suberea), 
from its habit, true pin-like spicule (that is, with a turban-like 
head), compact structure, minute cancelli, and small, although 


On the Relations between Wasps and Rhipiphori. 83 


defined, canalicular system, as one of Dr, J. E, Gray’s family 
of Clioniade. 

The yellow colour and dimpled appearance, respectively, 
presented by the coriaceous envelope of the gemmule is owing 
to its being composed of minute spherical cellules, about 
1-3700th of an inch in diameter, situated about the same distance 
from each other, but united together, in a stellate form, by 
intervening straight tubules, five or six in number, radiating 
from each cellule, similar to what is seen in the microscopic 
cell-structure of fossil Foraminifera, ex. gr. Orbitoides ; and it 
is in the intervals between the cellules and radii that the 
dimples occur. 


XI1.—Reply to Mr. Frederick Smith on the Relations between 
Wasps and Rhipiphori. By ANDREW Murray, F.L.S. 


I was much pleased to read my friend Mr. Frederick Smith’s 
commentary on my paper about Wasps and Rhipiphori in the 
last Number of the ‘ Annals,’ although I see that I have not 
succeeded in converting him to my views. ‘There is nothing 
like the collision of opposing minds for eliciting truth ; and it 
is always pleasant to find another taking interest in a subject 
which has excited our own, especially when it is so fairly and 
honestly handled as every subject is on which Mr. Smith ex- 
presses his opimion. 

With the help of that fairness, I do not yet despair of 
bringing him round; and for that purpose, as well as for the 
sake of those who may have been convinced by his arguments 
or led away by the authority of his opinion on a subject on 
which he is facile princeps, I shall ask him and them again 
to weigh the difficulties which his view of the question pre- 
sents. In my last paper I was more concerned in stating my 
own observations than in controverting the opinions of others ; 
but I shall now pass in review the whole facts that we know 
on the subject, either from Mr. Smith, Mr. Stone, myself, or 
others, and endeavour to see with which explanation they best 
agree. 

our. Smith agrees with me that the Rhipiphorus lays its 
eggs in the cells of the wasps, and that in the instances in 
which I saw two eggs in one cell, one of them must have been 
a Rhipiphorus; that gives us the form of its egg and its posi- 
tion and mode of attachment in the cell (which are all iden- 
tical with those of the wasp’s). When the wasp’s egg is exa- 
mined in its early stage, it is seen to be simply an oval egg, 
with a smooth semitranslucent shell, through which, at a later 


84 Mr. A. Murray on the Relations 


period, the form of the larva can be distinguished, when viewed 
as a transparent object. It is fixed, by the narrow end, in an 
angle of the cell about a third of the way from its base. By- 
and-by it looks as if it had a head, and by-and-by like a larva 
holding on by the tail. How it comes out of the shell, or whe- 
ther it ever comes out of the shell, I do not know; most likely 
Mr. Smith can say. It may be that the egg-shell is absorbed 
and becomes practically the first skin of the larva. Looked at 
later, or, I should rather say, in a further advanced specimen 
(for that is the way in which the changes practically are ob- 
served), we find the larva nearer the base of the cell: it is 
travelling to the bottom. It cannot fall out of the egg-shell 
to reach it at one stroke ; for the cell is mouth down and the 
bottom is at the top: it cannot fall up; it therefore has to 
work upwards. How it does so, is, I think, not known. It is 
said by some to be by throwing itself into a loop and catching 
hold of the wall of the cell with its teeth, then releasing the 
tail and throwing another loop, fastening its tail again as a 
sucker and releasing its head, and so on, by a succession of slow 
summersaults ; but this to me seems impossible. At the stage 
in question it is a dumpy fat oval thing which, to all appearance, 
could no more bend itself into a loop than a hogshead could. But 
be that as it may, somehow or other thé young larva manages 
to wriggle itself (perhaps by slow action of its sucker tail) up 
to the bottom of the cell. Now the first question I should like 
to ask Mr. Smith is, whether this helpless larva is fed by the 
parent wasps before it reaches its goal, the bottom of the cell, 
or not. I see no reason why it should not, but almost a ne- 
cessity that it should. ‘The journey to it, especially if made 
by the process of shifting its sucker tail without letting go its 
hold, must not only be a slow one, but one involving con- 
siderable exertion. We all know (that is, all entomologists 
know) how soon a larva freshly excluded from the egg shrivels 
up if its food is not at its mouth the moment it comes out, 
and we are never tired of admiring the wonderful precautions 
which the parent insect takes to ensure that its offspring shall 
find itself in the midst of plenty from the very first. I there- 
fore believe that it 7s fed, and fed with soft food fitted for its 
tender jaws. 

But how about the young Rhipiphorus-larva? Is it fed too ? 
And here it is scarcely a digression (certainly not an irrelevant 
one) to ask what the larva is like. So far as I know, it has 
never been properly described or figured. Candéze and Cha- 
puis, in their works on the larve of Coleoptera, give no de- 
scription ; they refer to a notice of it by Ramdohr in Germar’s 
Mag. fiir Entom. i. (1813) p. 1387, but which is without de- 


aid 


between Wasps and Rhipiphori. B85 


scription. Neither does Westwood give or refer to any descrip- 
tion in his great work; and I can find none anywhere else. 
Mr. Stone is the first who gives some details about it: his 
description is as follows :— 

“The larva is a singular-looking one. The head is bent 
forward under the body; between the segments it is more 
deeply furrowed than any larva with which I am acquainted. 
A longitudinal furrow extends down the back from the head 
to the anal extremity, cutting each segment across. The skin, 
during life, throughout the whole of the course of this furrow, 
is perfectly transparent, so that the workings of the internal 
organs may be plainly seen. The body of the larva, while alive, 
has the appearance of a thin transparent skin filled with mi- 
nute particles of curd. These appearances vanish after death, 
when the body becomes dense and has an appearance of soli- 
dity about it which it had not before.” (Stone in ‘ Zoologist,’ 
1865, xxiii. p. 9462.) 

But this description is obviously imperfect. He does not 
tell us whether it has feet or not—a not unimportant point 
when the question is whether the larva passes a nearly mo- 
tionless life in one cell, or a roving one, preying upon grubs 
in other cells. But the context implies that it is like the 
grub of the wasp, and consequently apodal; and Mr. Smith 
informs me that it is so. I remember perfectly, in my exa- 
mination of the wasps’ nest out of which this question has 
arisen, seeing plenty of grubs with the back so transparent as 
to show the inside like curds shining through. If these were 
the larve of the Rhipiphorus, then they are as like to the wasp- 
grub as one pea to another—so like, m fact, that they did not 
attract my attention as being distinct. ‘Their powers of mo- 
tion, then, are similar to those of the wasp; and I state it as a 
fact beyond contradiction that the wasp-grub cannot walk. 
When taken from its cell, it lies like a sack of meal: it may 
wriggle a little; but as to rising up and walking, it can no 
more do it than the sack can. Once fixed and hanging by 
the tail, all they can do seems to be to shift their position a 
little. But, passing that, the question I ask is, how the Rhi- 
piphorus-larve are sustained at first until they reach their 
supposed prey, if not by the wasp-nurses. ‘The journey 
of the young larva, according to Mr. Smith’s view, is in 
an opposite direction to that of the wasp’s, viz. to the 
mouth of the cell, to go roving about in search of a wasp- 
larva on which to pounce and prey; its journey is thus 
longer. It must be a longer time without food, and undergo 
greater exertion requiring food, travelling about like a Blondin 
on the edges of the cells—only like a Blondin upside down ; 


86 Mr. A. Murray on the Relations 


and when it gets to its food (the wasp-grub), it has a tough 
skin for its tender young jaws to break through before it can 
begin, and must encounter the risk of being first gobbled up 
by the big wasp-grub, whose jaws are gaping for food at the 
very door. It seems to me that it would be a safe speculation 
to lay long odds on the wasp-grub having the best of it. If 
Mr. Smith says it is not fed at all until it takes a wasp-grub 
at unawares, then I invite him to consider the difficulties at- 
tending the promenade which he supposes it to make before 
breaking its fast. If he admits that it must be fed by the 
wasps to begin with, then I ask him to say, on abstract grounds 
(putting Mr. Stone’s observations out of view for the present), 
why he should object to its being fed by the wasps more at 
one time of its life than another. 

But there are more anomalies in Mr. Smith’s way than that. 
Suppose that it does not require to be fed, or that, if it requires to 
be fed, it is fed by the wasps until it reaches its victim, and that 
then it escapes its jaws and fastens upon it, 1 want Mr. Smith 
to say whether it feeds only upon one victim, or if, after eat- 
ing it up, it comes out again, and goes roaming about from 
cell to cell, destroying a succession of grubs. It must do either 
the one or the other. Let us test both. First, that it only 
destroys one grub. As the Rhipiphorus-pupex and perfect in- 
sects ready to come out are always found in cells closed-in by 
a lid which Mr. Smith maintains to be spun by the wasp- 
larve *, the Rhipiphorus-grub must make its lodgment in 
the victim’s cell just before it is beginning to spin, and must 
make so little progress in its attack upon it at first as to leave 
it at least power to spin the lid. When it is spun, the two 
will then be shut up together, and the little tiny grub has full 
scope to tear away at the vitals of the wasp, probably now 
become a pupa. But does Mr. Smith think that a meal of one 
animal can suffice to nourish another into as great dimensions 
as the animal eaten. True, a caterpillar infested with ichneu- 
mons often nourishes within its bosom a tribe of parasites 
whose aggregate bulk is not much inferior to its own; but 
they have not had merely a mass to eat equal to its bulk; 
they have grown with its growth, and fresh food has been 
assimilated for them day by day—so that they have eaten the 


* T have to acknowledge the justness of Mr. Smith’s correction of a 
lapsus penne in my last paper, where I spoke of the pupz spinning these 
lids, instead of the larvee. The contrast in my line of thought was not 
between pup and larvee, but between the lid being spun by the creature 
inside the cell or lid, or by the parents outside. Of course when the larva 
changes into a nearly motionless inactive pupa, there could be no ques- 
tion of spinning. The error corrected itself. 


between Wasps and Rhipiphori. 87 


bulk of many caterpillars. With the Rhipiphorus there is 
nothing of this. The assumption is that it attacks from with- 
out. The wasp-larva or pupa has ceased to eat, or if not 
already ceased, the attacks of its enemy will soon make it 
cease; and all that the little larva of the Lhipiphorus has to 
feed upon and grow as large as the wasp upon is the one 
mass of meat no larger than what it is to grow to. This 
is the view which Mr. Stone and, following him, Mr. Smith 
adopt. My, Stone’s observation is that the Rhipiphorus-larva 
which he found attacking a wasp-larva in a sealed-up cell 
(which, by the way, must only have been recently closed, or 
it would have had within it not a wasp-larva, but a wasp- 
pupa) “ was of mdnute size when discovered, and appeared to 
have only recently fastened on its victim; but so voracious 
was its appetite, and so rapid its growth, that in the course of 
the following forty-eight hours it attained its full size.” Now 
if by ‘ menute size’? we suppose a line or a line and a half in 
length, it must have grown three or four times its own size in 
forty-eight hours, which is so opposed to everything we know 
of the laws of development and assimilation that I cannot 
accept it. If we look at the little black deposit of digested 
débris at the bottom of the wasps’ cells, we find fragments 
indicating the consumption of hundreds of insects not much 
smaller than themselves: there is the same at the bottom of 
the cells of the Rhipiphori; but I refrain from using that as 
an argument, because Mr. Smith might plead that I cannot 
prove that the black deposit in their cells was not the product 
of former wasp-tenants who had been reared in the same cell. 

Let it not be supposed for a moment that I at all doubt 
that Mr. Stone thought he saw this; but I think his observation 
has been inaccurate ; and I try to account for it in this way :-— 
It is plain he could not have kept his eye constantly fixed on 
this specimen for forty-eight hours; we may assume that he 
did not sit up two nights running to watch it. He saw it at- 
tacking the wasp-larva and eating at it voraciously (the mean- 
ing of that and of some other of his observations I shall dis- 
cuss presently), and he left it so occupied. He returned to it, 
how soon or how often he does not tell us; but when he did 
return, and found it so increased in bulk, I cannot but believe 
that he mistook the cell, and, instead of looking into the one 
he left, looked into another where was a mature Rhipiphorus- 
larva, which had had nothing to do with the meal on the 
wasp. Any one who has ever tried the experiment of en- 
deavouring to find a particular cell in a comb after removing 
his eyes from it, for however brief a space, will know that 
nothing could be easier than to make such a mistake. I can 


88 Mr. A. Murray on the Relations 


speak to it from experience. In placing the nest from which 
I took my Rhipiphort in the South-Kensington Museum, I 
thought it might be desirable to mark the cells out of which I 
had taken Rhipiphori; and I accordingly set about doing so 
by painting blue the lid of each cell out of which I took one. 
At first I attempted to do it by first taking out the insect and 
then painting the lid; but I found the short space of time 
between laying down the forceps and taking up the painting- 
brush sufficient to efface or render uncertain the identity of 
the cell from which it had been taken. I therefore had to 
take the precaution of painting the half-opened lid before I 
drew out the Rhipiphorus. 

But, further, if the rate and mode of growth of the Rhipr- 
phort is that stated, they should always be found engaged in 
the way Mr. Stone describes. They should always be found 
in sealed cells, if one wasp-grub is sufficient to nourish them ; 
whereas this is the only instance that has ever been observed 
of it. (Mr. Smith says no; but I shall presently show that it 
is.) Mr. Stone himself records having found a number of 
larvee of Rhipiphorus which we may fairly infer were not so 
occupied, for he would have recorded it had they been so: 
two he mentions having found solitary in worker-cells ; and 
although he does not specify where or how he found the others 
engaged, still, if not in a cell with a wasp-grub, there is only 
one other place for them to be found in, viz. solitary in cells 
by themselves. Now I should like Mr. Smith to say what the 
mass of the larve are doing in cells by themselves. If it had 
been pupx, we might have inferred that they had completed 
their task, eaten up their man, and retired from active life: 
but larvee are different; they have still more or less of their 
task to do. Again, if Mr. Stone’s observation is correct, we 
should never see any half-grown larve. There should be no 
medium between a “minute” one and a full-grown one, ex- 
cept during the forty-eight hours at which it is at its meal; 
but Mr. Smith speaks of specimens of under-grown larve ; 
and if I am to suppose that the grubs I saw with a curd-like 
interior shining through the back were Rhipiphorus-grubs, 
then I can say for myself that I saw them of all sizes. In 
relation to this I may remark that Mr. Smith founds on the 
size of the perfect insect an argument which I am sure, on re- 
consideration, he will abandon. He argues that insects which 
in their larval state are dependent for their sustenance on 
chance or irregular supplies of food are apt to vary much in 
size, which is quite true ; but he goes on to instance the h7- 
ptphorus as one of the examples of parasites that differ greatly 
in size. Now this, although true to the letter, is not true in 


wY\y 


the 'Tenebrionide of Australia de. 105 


A strongly marked species, its habit suggesting the North- 
American genus Nosoderma. 


» Amarygmus* tyrrhenus. 

A. suboblongo-ovalis, violaceo-purpureus, vel violaceo-chalybeatus, 
nitidus; elytris parallelis, striato-punctatis, punctis subapproxi- 
matis, interstitiis modice convexis, vix punctatis; tarsis sat gra- 
cilibus. 

Hab. Western Australia. 


Moderately oblong-oval, violet-purple, or steel-blue with a 
violet tinge, glossy, and more or less varying according to the 
light; head not closely punctured, a little convex between the 
eyes; antenne black, rather short; prothorax rather trans- 
verse, minutely and somewhat remotely punctured ; scutellum 
curvilinearly triangular; elytra somewhat narrow compara- 
tively, the sides parallel, striato-punctate, the punctures rather 
close, the intervals of the striz moderately convex, nearly 
impunctate, or with a very minute puncture here and there ; 
body beneath glossy, black; legs dark steel-blue. Length 
4—5 lines. 

A striated species, with rather narrow elytra, especially in 
the male—a character by which it appears to be well dif- 
ferentiated. Mr. Masters sends me a specimen of A. Howitttd? 
(ante, vol. iii. p. 848) from Port Lincoln, much more coppery 
than the two I received from Dr. Howitt ; also two individuals 
of A. suturalis (ante, vol. 111. p. 850), one of which is destitute of 
the rich colour (bright golden green in the other) which adorns 
the type specimen. 

Amarygmus maurulus. 
A, ovalis, niger, vix nitidus; elytris cyaneo-nigris, leviter striato- 
punctatis ; pedibus antennisque ferrugineis. 


Hab. New South Wales (Illawara). 


Oval, or in one sex narrowly oval, black, scarcely shining ; 
head rather narrow, almost impunctate, the clypeus distinctly 
punctured ; antennz slender, ferruginous; prothorax mode- 
rately transverse, impunctate; scutellum triangular ; elytra 
dark blue-black, finely striate, the strize with elongate, slightly 
approximate punctures, the intervals of the striz rather broad, 
not convex, with a very delicate scattered punctation; body 
beneath blackish brown; legs ferruginous, the femora glossy, 
tarsi slender. Length 3-3} lines. 

A small dull-looking insect, approaching A. tarsalis, but 
with a more approximate punctation on the elytra, and dif- 
ferently coloured. 

* Dalman, Anal. Entom. p. 60. 


Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 4. Vol. v. 8 


106 On the Tenebrionidee of Australia &c. 


Amarygnus variolaris. 


A, subanguste ovatus, ereus, subnitidus; elytris punctis distinctis- 
simis irregulariter dispersis. 


Hab. Queensland (Wide Bay, under the bark of trees). 


Rather narrowly ovate, yellowish brassy, not very glossy ; 
head rather broad, finely and somewhat sparingly punctured ; 
antenne brownish chestnut, the third joint shorter than the 
two next together ; prothorax strongly transverse, finely punc- 
tured ; scutellum triangular; elytra oblong, moderately con- 
vex, the sides very gradually narrowing from the base, more 
rapidly rounding towards the apex, with opaque, dark-greenish, 
irregularly dispersed, and somewhat distant punctures ; body 
beneath yellowish brassy, shining ; legs glossy brownish chest- 
nut. Length 33 lines, 

One of the most distinct species of the genus, on account of 
the peculiar sculpture of the elytra, Of the two specimens 
which I received from Mr, Masters, one (the male?) has the 
three basal joints of the anterior tarsi short and strongly di- 
lated,—while in the other they are very slender and elongate ; 
the antenna are also almost linear, with the outer joints ob- 
long : in the former the antenne are imperfect, but they appear 
to be stouter. 


EURYPERA. 


(Subfamily Asarreurn2.) 
Caput ad oculos retractum. 


Oculi supra haud approximatt. 
Tarsi subtus pilosi. 


Except that the body is shorter and more convex, the rest 
of the character is as in Amarygmus. The terminal joint of 
the labial palpi is so large as nearly to cover the labium ; but 
this is only a modification of the Amarygmus- -character. 


Eurypera cuprea. 


E, cupreo-metallica, nitida; antennis, pedibus, corpore infra, nigris, 
glabris. 


Hab. Queensland (Port Denison). 


Reddish copper, shining; head finely and rather sparingly 
punctured ; upper lip black, connected with the clypeus by a 
bright orange membrane ; prothorax very transverse, gradually 
broader and rounded at the sides, the apex moderately emar- 
ginate, the disk covered with fine distant punctures ; scutellum 
triangular; elytra not broader than the prothorax at the base, 
strongly rounded at the sides, finely sulcate, the sulci black, 


M. E. Hiickel on the Organization of Sponges. 107 


with oblong, distant, indistinct punctures, the intervals very 
minutely punctured; body beneath and legs black, glabrous, 
_ shining; antenne black, slightly thicker outwards. Length 
44-5 lines. 


XI.— On the Organization of Sponges, and their Relationship 
to the Corals. By Ernst HACKEL. 


[Continued from p. 13. ] 


WHAT raises our deduction as to the common origin and 
genealogical relationship of the sponges and corals to a per- 
fect certainty is the hitherto entirely overlooked fundamental 
agreement of the sponges and corals (and, indeed, of all the 
Colenterata) in the ontogenetic building-up of their body from 
two different layers of cells or germ-lamelle—the entoderm and 
ectoderm. In all Sponges (just as in all Acalephs, Corals, 
Hydromedusx, and Ctenophora) all the parts of the body are 
developed by the differentiation of two distinct cellular layers 
—an inner formative membrane, the entoderm, and an outer 
formative membrane, the ectoderm. In all Sponges, as in all 
Acalephs, the inner germ-lamella (or entoderm) forms the 
epithelial lining of the nutrient canal-system, as well as the 
spores or sexual products (ova and zoospermia), which are 
nothing more than sexually differentiated cells of this canal- 
epithelium ; the outer germ-lamella (or ectoderm), on the 
other hand, forms the entire external wall of the canal-system 
and the principal mass of the body in general, which is 
differentiated in the higher Sponges and Acalephs into epi- 
dermis, connective tissue, skeletal parts, muscles, &e. The 
cells produced from the entoderm or inner formative membrane 
perform the vegetative functions of nutrition and reproduction 
both in the Sponges and in the Acalephs. The cells which 
originate from the ectoderm or outer formative membrane, on 
the other hand, perform the animal functions of movement and 
sensation, and serve also as a protective covering and as sup- 
porting skeletal parts for the whole body. It will therefore 
seem to be not inappropriate if in all Coelenterata (i. e. in all 
Sponges and Acalephs) we designate the entoderm (or inner 
formative cell-layer) as the vegetative germ-lamella, and the 
ectoderm (or outer formative cell-layer) as the animal germ- 
lamella. The wide view which is presented to us by this 
conception, and by its comparison with the corresponding 
relations of the germ-lamelle in the higher animals, and which 
is well adapted to elucidate the primitive relationship of all 
the stems of the animal kingdom, 7. ¢. the common derivation 


108 M. E. Hiickel on the Organization of Sponges, 


of all animal phyla, will be explained more fully in my Mono- 
graph of the Calcispongie. 

I will admit that this law, which appears to me to be of 
high importance, is subject to certain modifications in many 
individual cases, and that perhaps here and there, in both the 
Sponges and Acalephs, the two germ-lamelle or formative 
membranes (the entoderm and ectoderm) may replace each 
other by local substitution. Not untrequently the entoderm is 
lost over large spaces, and is replaced by the ectoderm. In 
some, perhaps in many cases (both in Sponges and Acalephs), 
the different signification of the two divergent germ-lamelle 
is, in particular parts of the body, not clearly recognizable, or 
even actually changed. Thus, for instance, perhaps in both 
groups of animals, sexual products may sometimes be deve- 
loped from the ectoderm and muscles from the entoderm. But 
then, probably, these deviations and local substitutions of the 
two lamelle are to be regarded as secondary modifications, 
only produced at a late period by adaptation. The original 
primary relation inherited by all Sponges and Acalephs from 
the common trunk-form (Protascus) ts probably that described 
above: the entoderm, as the inner, vegetative germ-lamella, 
forms the nutrient cells of the canal-epithelium, and the cells 
produced from these, by division of labour, serving for the pur- 
pose of reproduction (germ-cells or spores, ova and zoospermia) ; 
whilst the ectoderm, as the outer, animal germ-lamella, forms 
the muscles, nerves, skeletal parts, outer covering, &c. 

This law finds its strongest support in the structure of the 
young forms of the two groups of animals, which have been 
already referred to. The cup-shaped young state, produced 
from the ciliated larva, which possesses a simple stomachal 
cavity (or digestive body-cavity) with a single, simple aper- 
ture (or mouth), and which, in the living Prosycum, still re- 
calls to us the long-lost picture of the Protascus, shows us its 
simple solid body-wall (or stomach-wall) composed throughout 
of the two distinctly differentiated formative membranes, the 
entoderm and the ectoderm, and, indeed, equally in the corre- 
sponding young states of the Spongie as in those of the corals 
and the Acalephs generally. Here, again, however, the Calci- 
spongie serve as admirable elucidatory objects, because, on 
the one hand, of all Sponges they approach nearest to the 
corals, and, on the other, in the graduated evolution of their 
simple organization, from the very simple Prosycwm and 
Olynthus, up to the highly developed Dunstervillia and Cya- 
thiscus, they bring wonderfully before our eyes the continual 
separation of the two originally divergent formative mem- 
branes, the vegetative entoderm and the animal ectoderm, 


and their Relationship to the Corals. 109 


notwithstanding their further differentiation to various higher 
structures. ; 

In all Calcispongiz without exception (although in some 
more distinctly than in others), the fundamental and original 
difference of the two formative membranes stands out so dis- 
tinctly, and may be so readily and clearly traced in their fur- 
ther divergence, even up to the most highly developed forms, 
that it may be at all times visibly demonstrated. Consequently 
it has not escaped those naturalists who have most carefully 
investigated the structure of the Calcispongie. Here and there 
they all speak of the different layers of the body-wall; but 
none of them has indicated their general and genetic signifi- 
cance, and no one has perceived that the entoderm produces 
exclusively the epithelium of the canal-system, which per- 
forms the function of nutrition, and the cells serving for re- 
production, and the ectoderm all the other cells. For this 
reason | may be permitted here to adduce some special cir- 
cumstances connected with the structure of the body in the 
Calcispongiz, the detailed description of which, and their elu- 
cidation by figures, I reserve for my monograph. 

The enxtoderm, or inner formative membrane of the Calci- 
spongiz, produced from the inner cell-layer or vegetative 
germ-lamella of the embryo, originally lines the whole inner 
surtace of the nutrient canal-system or gastrovascular system 
in the form of a single continuous cell-layer of flagellated epi- 
thelium. By the expression flagellated epithelium (Geissel- 
Epithel, epithelium flagellatum) I understand an epithelial 
cell-layer, each cell of which bears a single vibratile hair (fla- 
gellum), in contradistinction to ciliated epithelium (Wimper- 
Epithel, epithelium ciliatum), each cell of which bears two or 
more vibratile hairs (Wimpern, cilia). Flagellated and ciliated 
epithelia are to be distinguished as two different modifications 
ot vibratile epithelium (i limmer-Epithel, epithelium vibrato- 
rium). Jn all sponges the vibratile epithelium appears to occur 
exclusively in the form of flagellated epithelium, and never in 
that of ciliated epithelium. ‘his applies both to the vibratile 
cells which line the inner surface of the canal-system and to 
those which clothe the outer surface of the vibratile swimming 
larva. In both cases the epithelial cells are always mono- 
trichal, flagellate cells, and never polytrichal, ciliate cells. he 
flagellate cells of the sponges are pertectly naked and mem- 
braneless ; their protoplasm passes directly into the long fla- 
gellum, which is thicker at the base. In the flagellate cells 
I have never failed to find a distinct nucleus. It 1s usually of 
very considerable size, one-half or two-thirds as large as the 
cell. Generally the flagellate cells line the walls of the canal- 
system only in a single layer; rarely several layers are super- 


110 M.E. Hickel on the Organization of Sponges, 


imposed upon each other. Such stratified flagellate epithelium 
occurs, for example, in Zarroma and Clathrina. 

Besides the flagellate cells, the entoderm of the sponges 
gives origin only” to one product, the ova. Although here, 
following the example of all authors, I denominate the germ- 

cells or reproductive cells of the sponges ova, this is not with- 
out great hesitation. Thus, although I have most carefully 
examined with the microscope hundreds of Calcispongiz, I 
have never succeeded, either in these or in the other sponges 
investigated by me, in ’ detecting any trace of fecundating male 
elements or zoospermia. [ have thus become ver Yy suspicious 
of the generally accepted sexual differentiation of the sponges 
in general. The only accounts of zoospermia in sponges 
which seem to merit’ confidence (although they still require 
confirmation) are those of Lieberkiihn with regard to Spongilla. 
What Carter describes as the zoospermia of Spongilla are, as 
Lieberkiihn perceived, Infusoria; and what Huxley figures as 
the zoospermia of Thetya are very probably vibratile cells. 
No less doubtful are the filaments which Kélliker describes as 
the zoospermia of Hsperia. Scepticism as to the occurrence 
of zoospermia in sponges appears the more justifiable because, 
on the one hand, the detached flagella of the flagellate cells, 
which move briskly, may very easily be mistaken for motile 
seminal filaments, and, on the other, many of the most expe- 
rienced observers, such as O. Schmidt and Bowerbank, who 
have examined microscopically thousands of sponges, have, 
like myself, sought in vain for male organs of any kind 
whatever. I regard it, therefore, as most prudent and advisa- 
ble, for the present, to doubt the sexuality of the sponges. 
But then the cells subserving reproduction, the germ-cells 
(gonocyta), must be designated not as sexual eggs (ova), but 
as asexual germ-cells (spore). 

I have found the spores or so-called ova, in all sponges 
mvestigated by me, to be perfectly naked and destitute of 
membrane, like the flagellate cells from which they proceed. 
Throughout I have never found in the sponges examined by me 
any trace of a membrane or true cell-membrane on the cells. 
All sponge-cells are naked cells without envelopes (gymnocyta). 
The spores of the Calcispongie have hitherto been seen only 
by Lieberkiithn in Sycum ciliatum, and by Kélliker in Tarrus 
and Dunstervillia. I have never missed them in any of the 
mature Calcispongiz investigated by me. ‘They are very 
easily recognized, as they are distinguished at once from the 
flagellate cells by their very considerable size and the absence 
of the flagellum, whilst no other independently persistent cells 
(except these two cell-forms of the entoderm) occur in the body 
of the Calcispongie. 


and thetr Relationship to the Corals. TfL 


The mode of production of the spores or so-called ova of the 
sponges has hitherto been unknown. In my monograph IL 
shall demonstrate that they proceed directly from the flagellate 
cells, and consequently are products of differentiation of the 
entoderm, or metamorphosed flagellate cells. The simple and 
extremely significant fact that the reproductive cells are pro- 
duced, by division of labour, from the nutrient vibratile cells 
of the entoderm or vegetative germ-lamella applies also to 
the sponges equally with the Acalephs. According to Kél- 
liker, the spores of Dunstervillia and Tarrus lie outside the 
vibratile epithelium in the ectoderm. But they only get there 
when, from the increase of their bulk, they can no longer find 
room among the surrounding flagellate cells of the entoderm. 
They then project sometimes into the ectoderm and sometimes 
into the lumen of the canals. I have never found special 
spore-capsules in the Calcispongiz, but the spores may deve- 
lope themselves from the flagellate cells on the most different 
spots in the entoderm. What Lieberkiihn describes in Sycum 
as a special “receptacle for the ova, without demonstrable 
structure,”’ I have never seen, and I suppose that these asserted 
spore-capsules are transversely cut canals. 

As Kédlliker has already pointed out, the spores of the 
sponges have a remarkable resemblance to large ganglionic 
cells. This is due to the fact that the protoplasm of the cells 
emits from the periphery polymorphic branched processes. 
The spores of the Calcispongie resemble large Amcebe, and 
perform amaboid movements, by extending and retracting 
such branched processes. In a state of repose, they are sphe- 
rical or polyhedral. Hach spore possesses a very large, usu- 
ally spherical, and limpid nucleus. ‘This encloses a large, 
round, dark, nucleolus, and this, again, a distinct nucleolinus. 

The Spongte are in part sporiparous and in part viviparous. 
In the sporiparous sponges (e. g. Leucosolenia, Clistolynthus) 
the mature spores drop out of the entoderm into the stomachal 
cavity or into the parietal canals issuing from the latter, and 
are then cast forth through the mouth in the forms which are 
provided with a mouth, whilst in astomatous sponges they 
creep out through the cutaneous pores. In the latter case their 
amoeboid movements will be of essential assistance to them. 

In the viviparous sponges (e. g. Olynthus, Clathrina) a 
spherical body (embryo), composed entirely of similar naked 
nucleated cells, is produced from the simple spore-cell by con- 
tinued division (‘‘ segmentation”) within the body of the 
sponge (either in the stomach or in the parictal canals issuing 
from it. Each of the cells situated on its surface emits a fila- 
mentous process, and thus becomes a flagellate cell. Then 


12 M. E. Hickel on the Organization of Sponges, 


there is produced in the interior of this vibratile embryo a 
central cavity (stomach), which, sooner or later breaking 
through to the outside, acquires an orifice (mouth). As has 
already been remarked, the wall of this simple stomachal 
cavity (body-cavity) then becomes differentiated into two 
different cellular layers. After the vibratile larva ‘has issued 
from the parent body, and come to rest after swimming about 
for a time, the cells of the outer surface retract their flagella, 
become fused together, and thus form the ectoderm. On the 
contrary, those cells which surround the stomachal cavity emit 
each a filiform process, and thus become flagellate cells and 
form the entoderm. It is only much later, when the sponge 
has attained its true maturity, that the spores are produced 
from individual cells of the entoderm. 

The body-wall, or stomachal wall of the freely swimming, 
ovate, vibratile larvae, the entire canal-system of which con- 
sists of a simple stomachal cavity with a mouth-orifice, is 
composed, in the smaller Calcispongie (e. g. Olynthus, Nar- 
doa), only of two layers of cells, the ectoderm and the ento- 
derm each forming only a single layer of cells. In the larger 
Calcispongiz, on the contrary (e. g. Dunstervillia, Clathrina), 
each of the two sets of cells may divide into several layers. 

The ectoderm or outer formative membrane of the Calci- 
spongie, produced from the outer cell-layer or animal germ- 
lamella of the embryo, always forms more than half the 
volume of the body, as it is always thicker (often several 
times) than the entoderm. The ectoderm consists of intimately 
amalgamated naked cells, the nuclei of which are always 
at first, and usually even at later periods, distinctly visible in 
the united protoplasm, which is frequently differentiated in 
various ways. ‘The nuclei are generally of an elongate- 
rounded form, and frequently surrounded by an aggregation 
of fine granules, which not rarely radiate from the nucleus 
and extend in various directions into the protoplasm. Al|- 
though in the ectoderm of the mature Calcispongiz, the appa- 
rently almost homogeneous, nearly structureless, fundamental 
substance, charged with nuclei and skeletal spicules, no longer 
allows any trace of the amalgamated cells of which it is com- 
posed to be recognized, it has nevertheless been actually pro- 
duced from originally separated cells by their subsequent fusion, 
as is clearly proved by the ontogeny of the embryos and 
larve. ‘The ectoderm therefore does not merit the name of 
true sarcode, if under this notion we understand free and pri- 
mitive protoplasm not yet differentiated into cells. The deno- 
mination syncytium or sarcodine might perhaps seem more 
suitable for it. 


and thetr Relationship to the Corals, Lis 


The ectoderm of the Calcispongie, which becomes con- 
verted by the fusion of the originally separate célls of the outer 
or animal germ-lamella into the in some respects retromor- 
phosed tissue ofthe sarcodine or syncytium, represents, physio- 
logically considered, a tissue which performs the whole of the 
animal functions of the sponge-body—movement, sensation, 
support, and covering. ‘The amalgamated protoplasm of the 
sarcodine is contractile and sensitive, forms the skeleton, and 
covers the surface of the body. It therefore, as it were, unites 
in one person the four functions which, in the higher animals, 
are separated and distributed over the four tissue- -systems of 
the muscles, nerves, skeletogenetic connective substances, 
and epidermoidal covering, 

In a morphological point of view, of all the functions of the 
ectoderm its skeletogenetic activity indisputably produces the 
most important results. The skeleton of the Calcispongiz, as 
indeed of all other sponges, is purely the product of the ecto- 
derm—and, indeed, never a simple exudation, an “external 
plasma- -product,” as I have expressed this idea in my ‘ Ge- 
neral Morphology,’ but always an ¢nternal plasma-product. 
The guestio vexata, so often ventilated, whether the skeletal 
parts of the sponges are or are not produced in the interior of 

alls, is solved by the developmental history. When the 
skeletogenetic protoplasm still persists in the form of a distinct 
cell provided with a nucleus, the spicules are produced in the 
interior of this cell. But when the skeletogenetic cells have 
already become fused together to form sarcodine, the skeletal 
parts are produced in the interior of this syncytium. The ske- 
letal parts of the sponges are never produced at the free surface 
of the ectoderm, but always in its interior. 

In the calcareous skeleton of the Calcispongiz, by which 
these sponges are distinguished from all others, we may with 
comparative ease convince ourselves of this fact. The Spi- 
cules of the-caleareous skeleton are in them either entirely 
concealed in the modified protoplasm of the ectoderm, or, 
when they project freely from its surface, they are still coated, 
as if with a sheath, by a thin layer of the protoplasm. ‘This 
character, first indicated by Kolliker in Tarrus spongiosus 
(his Nardoa spongiosa), has occurred to me more or less dis- 
tinctly throughout the Calcispongiz. Moreover in certain 
cases the calcareous spicules contain a central canal filled 
with protoplasm, such as occurs almost universally in the 
siliceous spicules of the siliceous sponges. Lastly, in many 
(perhaps in all?) Calcispongiz the carbonate of lime of the 

skeleton appears not to be deposited quite pure, but to be in- 
timately combined with a more or less considerable quantity 


114. -M. E. Hackel on the Organization of Sponges, 


of organic substance (modified protoplasm). In many Calci- 
spongie the carbon-compound takes so considerable a share in 
the formation of the skeletal parts, that the latter, after the 
extraction of the carbonate of lime py muriatic acid, remain 
quite unchanged in form and size, whilst only a slight residue 
of molecular calcareous dust is left after calcination. 

The forms of the skeletal parts or spicules in the Caleci- 
spongie are, as is well known, by no means so multifarious 
as in the Silicispongie. Only the four following fundamental 
forms occur, with various modifications :—1. Simple spicules 
(linear, cy lindrical, or fusiform), frequent. 2. 'lwo-limbed 
spicules (forked or hooked), very rare. 3. Three-limbed or 
triradiate spicules (with equal or unequal limbs and with 
equal or unequal angles), by far the most frequent, and at the 

same time the form most characteristic of the Calcispongie. 
4. Four-limbed or quadriradiate spicules (the fourth ray of 
which usually projects freely into the canal-system). ‘The 
different modifications of these four fundamental forms, which 
have hitherto occupied the attention of the observers of the 
Calcispongiz more than all the rest of their organization, will 
be completely described in my monograph. 

That the Calcispongiz of all living sponges are most nearly 
allied to the corals, may be inferred in the first place even 
from the calcareous nature of the skeleton in the two groups. 
But to this may be added very interesting homologies in the 
special differentiation of the canal-system in the most highly 
developed forms of the Calcispongix, which in part directly 
approach the simpler forms of corals even by the formation 
of antimera*. We may therefore be allowed, in conclusion, 
to glance at the steps in the evolution of the canal-system 
in the Calcispongie. 

At the root of the whole system (or, what is the same thing, 
of the genealogical tree) of the Calcispongiz stands the remark- 
able Prosycum, the little calcareous sponge whose canal-system 
consists merely of a stomachal cavity with a mouth-opening. 
Next to this comes Olynthus, a simple “ person”? with stomach 
and mouth-opening, but the stomachal wall or body-wall of 
which is permeated by pertectly simple pores. ‘These cutaneous 
pores are simple breaches in the parenchyma, which perforate 


* Hiickel applies the term “antimera” to the “homotypic organs” of 
Bronn—that is to say, to those segments of the body, placed side by side, 
of which each contains “all or nearly all the essential parts of the body 
of the species.” The segments of the Radiate animals, as indicated in 
the text, furnish the most striking examples of this mode of formation. 
Where the repetition of parts occurs in consecutive segments (as in the 
Annulosa), these are called “‘ metamera” by Hickel. —W.S. D. 


and their Relationship to the Corals. 115 


both layers of the body-wall (ectoderm and entoderm) and are 
produced by the mutual separation of the cells’ at changeable 
points. There is no special canal-wall. The situation and 
number of the cutaneous pores are not constant, but changeable, 
in Olynthus and the most nearly allied Calcispongiz (Leuco- 
solenia, Clistolynthus). New ones form themselves, whilst the 
previously formed pores are again obliterated by the union of 
the cells which have moved asunder. The pores behave in 
this manner also in Leucosolenia (a stock-forming Olynthus) 
and in Clistolynthus (an Olynthus with the mouth closed up). 

In the larger and more highly developed Calcispongiz the 
simple and inconstant cutaneous pores gradually become con- 
verted into permanent and constant canals, which acquire a 
proper wall by the extension of the flagellate epithelium of the 
stomachal cavity upon their inner surface throughout the 
whole of the ectoderm (as in the family Sycaridz). Among 
these the genera Sycum and Dunstervillia have hitherto been 
most accurately examined; and in these the cutaneous pores 
have become developed into very considerable canals, which 
are quite regularly arranged, and traverse the wall of the body 
in a radiating direction. All previous observers, however, 
have overlooked the fact that these radiating canals not only 
open inwardly into the stomach and outwardly at the sur- 
face of the body, but also all stand in direct communica- 
tion with each other. The walls between the individual 
closely contiguous radiating canals are, in fact, perforated in 
all parts like a sieve, and interrupted by numerous apertures 
of communication, or conjunctive pores, through which each 
canal communicates with all its neighbours. In some genera 
the regular radiating canals ramify outwards in the same way 
as the irregular parietal canals in the walls of the Dyssycide. 

The most remarkable development of the canal-system is 
attained, however, in Cyathiscus, which is nearly allied to 
Sycartum and Sycum, and in which the horizontal partitions 
between the supertmposed radiating canals become absorbed, 
whilst the vertical partitions between the canals lying side by 
side persist. By this means is produced a system of radial 
perigastric chambers, which is exactly analogous to the corre- 
sponding system of perigastric cavities radially surrounding 
the stomach in the corals. The only distinction is, that the 
direct communication between the stomachal cavity and the 
chambers surrounding it takes place in the corals by the open- 
ing of the stomach and perigastric chambers below into the 
common basal space of the body-cavity situated beneath them, 
in Cyathiscus, on the contrary, by longitudinal rows of aper- 
tures (stomachal pores) which perforate the partition between 


116 =M.E. Hiackel on the Organization of Sponges, 


the stomachal cavity and each perigastric radial chamber. 
Thus the “ person” of Cyathiscus divides into a radial system 
of antimera, just like each developed coral-person. 

That the formation of antimera occurs frequently in the 
sponges generally, and that thereby a still closer approxima- 
tion to the corals is effected, has hitherto been entirely over- 
looked, Miklucho having only last year called attention to it 
(lc. p. 230). In Awinella polypoides, Osculina polystomella, 
and many other sponges—among fossil forms, especially in 
Celoptychium lobatum, Siphonia costata, &c., they strike one 
at once. These ‘“ radial”’ sponges are true “ Radiata” no less 
than most corals. It is evident, however, that, from a tecto- 
logical point of view, the sponges in which antimera are so 
distinctly differentiated rise no less than the more highly deve- 
loped corals above the lower sponges, in which no formation 
of antimera occurs. 

Consequently, except the higher degree of histological dif- 
ferentiation in most corals, there remains not a single character 
which completely separates the sponges from the corals. Even 
the tentacles surrounding the mouth, which have hitherto 
appeared to be the exclusive property of the corals, begin their 
development in certain sponges. At least I would regard as 
incipient tentacles the extremely remarkable curled and fringed 
* papille ’’ which form a circlet surrounding the mouth-open- 
ing of Osculina polystomella, one of the most remarkable of 
sponges. Moreover less importance is to be ascribed to the 
tentacles of the corals, as secondarily developed appendages, 
because even corals occur in which they are almost wanting 
or developed only in the form of rudimentary buttons (e. g. 
Antipathes). 

That the conditions of stock-formation or cormogeny are 
exactly the same in the corals and in the sponges scarcely 
needs to be particularly mentioned. It is precisely in this 
respect that the agreement between the two classes is so 
striking that it was this principally which led the older natu- 
ralists to unite the sponges and corals in their classifications. 
In the sponges we find no less multiplicity than in the corals in 
the combination of the ‘‘ persons ’’to form stocks ; and even the 
special modifications in the stock-formation which are produced 
by the multifarious forms of incomplete division and gemmation 
in the corals are reproduced in the sponges. Only one peculia- 
rity pertaining here may be specially indicated, because it has 
repeatedly led to singular misinterpretations. This is the 
formation of peculiarly reduced stocks by the growing together 
or concrescence of the branches, 1. e. ‘persons.’ Just as im the 
well-known fan-corals (e. g. Rhipidogorgia flabellum) the pe- 


and their Relationship to the Corals. 117 


culiar forms of the flatly dilated net-like stocks are produced 
by the repeated concrescence of the branches and anastomosis 
of their cavities, so in the sponges there are found stocks not 
only dilated and reticulated, but even twisted up into a coil, 
whilst at the same time their branches, 7. e. “ persons,” grow 
together and anastomose at their points of contact. Among 
the Calcispongie these labyrinthic coils become so dense, 
especially in the Nardopside and Tarromide, that the inter- 
spaces between the adult “persons” have been frequently 
taken for the internal cavities of their communicating canal- 
system. Thus, for example, Kolliker describes the interstices 
and fissures between the densely united branches of the stock 
of his Nardoa spongiosa (our Tarrus spongiosus) as “ efferent 
canals,” and the internal vibratile canal-system (the cavities 
of the branches) which occurs in this as in many other sponges, 
as “a network of ciliated canals, such as has hitherto been 
seen in no sponge.” 

The most remarkable results are produced by continued 
concrescence of the “persons”? in the genera Nardoa, Nar- 
dopsis, and Caenostoma, which I have therefore comprised in 
the distinct order of the Coenosyea. In these, after the attain- 
ment of maturity, the stomachal cavities or “flues” of the 
different ‘‘ persons’? which compose a stock, and which have 
been produced by lateral gemmation from one “ person,”’ open 
together finally into a single cavity (a common “ excurrent 
tube’) which opens outwards by a single orifice (a common 
mouth). As the mature sponge in this case possesses only a 
single mouth-opening, 7t 7s apparently only a single “person,” 
but in reality a true stock, i.e. a cormus composed of several 
“persons.” In youth each “person” possesses a proper 
mouth-opening, until it subsequently becomes united with its 
neighbours, and forms, together with these, a common mouth- 
opening. 

If we are to distinguish these wonderful animal-stocks the 
“persons” of which, by excessive centralization, have given 
up the most essential part of their individuality, the mouth, 
and in place of it have acquired a common stock-mouth (cor- 
mostoma), from the primitive polystomatous cormi, by a parti- 
cular denomination, they might perhaps be fittingly named 
Cenobia. The oldest form of starfish (Zocastra), which, ac- 
cording to my hypothesis as developed in the ‘ General Mor- 
phology,’ is also the primitive stem-form of the Echinoder- 
mata, would have to be regarded as a ccenobium of this kind. 
If, in accordance with this phylogenetic hypothesis, the primi- 
tive form of starfish actually represented a stock of annulated 
worms (persons) which had formed for themselves a common 


118 M.E. Hiickel on the Organization of Sponges, 


mouth-opening, this apparently so wonderful process would 
not, in fact, be more wonderful than the production of the 
ccenobium of a Nardoa or Nardopsis from a stock of Leuco- 
solenia, which may at any time be traced ontogenetically. 
Thus the lower ccenobia of the Ccoenosyca appear actually 
well fitted to elucidate the production of the higher ccenobia of 
the much more perfect Echinodermata. 

Peculiar as the Nardopside and Cenostomide with their 
single cormostome may appear, they (or at least the former) 
are united by transitive intermediate forms with the Leuco- 
solenie from which they have proceeded. Such transitive 
forms are the Tarromide, in which the sponge-stock possesses 
not one, but several cormostomes, and in which, therefore, the 
mouth-openings of the “persons”’ are not all fused together 
into one, but in groups into several separate stock-mouths. 
On the other hand, however, the advancing amalgamation of 
the mouth-openings originally present may lead to their com- 
plete disappearance, as in the astomatous sponges already 
cited. Both the individual “ persons” (Clistolynthus) and 
the stocks composed of several ‘ persons”? (Auloplegma) may 
lose their original mouth-openings by secondary fusion. Hence 
there are among the Calcispongie both individual forms with 
cutaneous pores, but without a mouth (Clistolynthus, Aulo- 
plegma), and also opposite forms with a mouth but without 
cutaneous pores (Prosycum). 

The phenomenon here touched upon, namely, that the ap- 
parently opposite and extreme structures are united by the 
interposition of a chain of gradual transition-forms, and that 
consequently the unity of the type of organization, ¢.e. the 
unity of descent, displays itself throughout, notwithstanding 
the greatest multifariousness in the details, strikes the critical 
and unprejudiced naturalist everywhere among the Calci- 
spongie, as, indeed, among the sponges generally; and this 
causes their study to appear so extremely instructive and so 
uncommonly fruitful, especially for the understanding of the 
descendence theory. The entire natural history of the sponges 
is a coherent and striking argument “ for Darwin.” Fritz 
Miiller and Oscar Schmidt have already put forward many 
particular examples of this undeniable fact, and I have myself 
everywhere found it perfectly confirmed. The organism of 
the sponges has evidently kept itself, down to our time, so 
fluid, so mobile, and so flexible, that we may here most plainly 
trace step by step the origin of the different species from a 
common stem-form. 

In this respect two forms of sponges may be indicated as 
quite peculiarly instructive and interesting. These are Mi- 


and their Relationship to the Corals. 119 


klucho’s Guancha blanca and my Sycometra cOMpresse : these 
two calcareous sponges cecurring in such various forms that 
they seem to belong sometimes to one and sometimes to another 
systematic group, ‘and place systematists in the greatest difti- 
culty. In the following Prodromus of a system of the Calei- 
spongie* I have been able to get over this difficulty only by 
founding for them a special order—that of the Metrosyea. 

Guancha. blanca (from the Canary Islands), in its most deve- 
loped form, appears as a sponge-stock which bears on one and 
the same cormus the mature forms of not fewer than four per- 
feetly different genera, namely, Olynthus among the Monosyca 
(form A. of Miklucho), Leucosolenia (form B) and Tarrus 
(form D) among the Polysyca, and Nardoa among the Coeno- 
syca (Miklucho’s form C). In the same way, the most deve- 
loped form of the Norwegian Sycometra compressa appears as 
a sponge-stock which bears on one and the same cormus the ma- 
ture forms even of eight different genera, namely :—Sycarium 
and Artynas, of the family Sycaride; 5, yordium and Arty- 
nium, of the family Sycodendride ; Sycocystis and Arty ee 
of the order Clistosyca ; and Sycophyllum and Artynophyllum, 
of the order Cophosyea. But we must regard all these forms 
united upon one stock as generically different, and not as mere 
developmental stages of one species, inasmuch as each of them 
is capable of reproduction, and bears about it in its developed 
spores the convincing testimony of perfect maturity. In these 
extremely remarkable and % impor tant sponges the organic species 
is to be observed as it were “in statu nascenti.” 

The same is probably true of Sycarium rhopalodes from 
Norway and Ute utriculus from Greenland, the latter described 
by Oscar Schmidt, provided that the different forms of these 
which I have ranged under the genera Sycarium, Artynas, 
Sycocystis, and Art iynella really manifest their specific matu- 
rity by the possession of developed spores. 

If we return, in conclusion, to the relation between the 
sponges and corals, and endeavour to establish arti ‘ficially the 
boundary between these two classes of animals, we find no- 
thing essential except the higher degree of histological dif- 
ferentiation in the corals, and especially their possession of 
urticating cells. No sponge forms urticating organs in the cells 
of its ectoder m, whilst these are present to a greater or less ex- 
tent in all Acalephs (in all Corals, Hydromeduse, and Cteno- 
phora without exception). It must be admitted that this his- 
tological character is in itself very unimportant, and, in respect 
of both its physiological and its morphological significance, i is 
but ale adapted for the establishment of a sharp boundary 

* A translation of this will appear in our next Number. 


120 Mr. W.S. Kent on a new Genus of Madreporaria. 


between the sponges and the other Ccelenterata. This boun- 
dary appears to be very artificial, if we consider that both 
among the Vermes and among the Mollusca there are parti- 
cular forms with urticating organs. It is, however, still 
further weakened when we take a general view of the whole 
of the conditions of histological differentiation in the sponges 
and corals, and become convinced that in both classes a wide 
scope is given to the degree of differentiation. Not a few of 
the more highly developed sponges, with regard to histological 
differentiation, perhaps occupy a higher grade than many 
corals, or at least than the Hydre among the Acalephs. On 
the other hand, a very important and thoroughgoing difference 
between the Acalephs and Sponges would result from the 
confirmation of the supposition expressed by me above, that 
zoospermia and consequently sexual differentiation do not 
occur among the sponges, and that the supposed “ ova” of the 
sponges are agamic spores. 

The further explanation and establishment of all the parti- 
culars here brought forward I reserve for my detailed mono- 
graph of the Calcispongie, and, in conclusion, beg all readers 
of this preliminary communication who may be in possession 
of dried or spirit specimens of Calcispongiz to be kind enough 
to transmit them to me for examination and comparison, in 
order to render the systematic part of that work as complete as 
possible. The Calcispongiz have hitherto been so sparingly 
represented in zoological collections almost everywhere, and 
their classification is so imperfect, that the following Prodro- 
mus of a system of the Calcispongize must commence quite 
afresh. Moreover many Calcispongiz are so very different in 
their internal structure, whilst their sober exterior appears 
almost the same, that the most accurate microscopic examina- 
tion of all the forms hitherto discovered is quite indispensable 
for the establishment of their classification. 


XIV.—On a new Genus of the Madreporaria or Stony Corals 
(Stenohelia). By Wm. 8. Kent, F.Z.8., F.R.M.S., of the 


Geological Department, British Museum. 


In the ‘Proceedings of the Zoological Society for 1862,’ 
p. 196, J. Y. Johnson described as a new species of Allopora 
a small branching coral, of the family Oculinide, taken by 
himself in the vicinity of Madeira. There are, however, 
several points of structure connected with it, seemingly over- 
looked by Mr. Johnson, which render it perfectly essential 
that a new genus should be created for its reception. 


Mr. W.5S. Kent on a new Genus of Madreporaria. 121 


The following are the characteristics of the new genus (for 
which I propose the name of Stenohelia), amended by recent 
observation :— 


Corallum dendroid, flabelliform ; surface of the ccoenenchyma 
delicately striate. Calices all turned one way, pedunculate, 
compressed transversely to the axis of their peduncles. Septa 
equal, scarcely exsert. Columella styliform, deeply immersed. 
Pali rudimentary. Calicular fossa deep. Increasing some- 
what irregularly by alternate distichal or subdichotomous 
gemmation. Ampulle not essential, developed to a more or 
less considerable extent. 


Stenohelia maderensis. 
Allopora maderensis, J. Y. Johnson, Proc. Zool. Soc. p. 196, figs, 1, 2, 3, 

p. 197 (1862). 

Corallum flabellate, the main stem somewhat irregularly 
and the ultimate ramifications alternate-distichal or dichoto- 
mously branching, occasionally, however, as many as three 
calices originating from the margin of the preceding one. 
Branches cylindrical, delicately striate, sometimes coalescing. 
Calices compressed, transversely ovate, pedunculate, all di- 
rected the same way, those on the main stem becoming gra- 
dually obscured by the outgrowth of the coenenchyma. Septa 
scarcely exsert, twelve to sixteen in number, projecting but 
little into the calicular fossa. Calicular fossa very deep, 
having springing from its bottom a well-developed, styli- 
form, pointed, and hirsute columella, surrounding which are 
traces of rudimentary pali. Ampulle present in the shape of 
rounded elevations of the coenenchyma studding the corallum 
on the opposite side to that on which the calices open, the 
surface of these elevations slightly echinulate. Long diameter 
of the calices measuring from 3; to +4; inch, the shorter 
averaging one-half of the same. Height of corallum of the 
single specimen in the British Museum - 34 inches. Colour of 


the. sclerenchyma pure opaque white. 
Hab. Madeira. 


The foregoing description differs essentially in two points from 
that given by “Mr. Johnson ,—in the first place, in the record 
of a well-developed columella, and, secondly, in that of the 
presence of ampullz, both of which characters « appear to have 
been entirely overlooked by the last-named writer. The 
columella, though deeply immersed and scarcely apparent, in 
every instance, ‘to the unassisted eye, is very readily discerni- 
ble with the aid of the pocket lens, the assistance of a low 


Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser.4. Vol. v. 9 


122 Mr. W.S. Kent on a new Genus of Madreporaria. 


power of the compound microscope, however, being requisite 
to define its hirsute character. The ampulla, though ‘sparingly 
scattered, are occasionally nearly globular, and of a size almost 
equalling in diameter that of the ramuscules which support 
them. 

Mr. Johnson, in describing the species as Al/lopora made- 
rensis, considers it to possess a great general resemblance to 
Stylaster flabelliformis, and, being under the impression that 
it does not possess ampulle, is of the opinion that this last 
circumstance indicates that the two genera Allopora and 
Stylaster should be united. Admitting the insufliciency of 
the presence or absence of these episclerenchymatous develop- 
ments as a generic or even specific diagnostic (which fact 
I shall amply demonstrate in describing some new species of 
Allopora proper in a forthcoming catalogue of the Madrepores 
contained in the British Museum, now in course of publication), 
the alternate-distichal or entirely irregular nature of the gem- 
mation which obtains in the two respective genera is alone an 
all-sufficient line of demarcation; and accordingly, of these 
two, Mr. Johnson’s species is the more closely allied to Sty- 
laster. 

Mr. Johnson, again, suggests that this species may possibly 
be identical with the Allopora infundibulifera of Lamarck. 
Specimens of the last-named species in the National collection, 
however, prove it to be very distinct from that interesting 
form. 

With regard to the true zoological affinities of Stenohelia, 
the pedunculated and transversely ovate calices all turning 
the same way, and the subdichotomous mode of gemmation 
frequently evinced, seem rather to indicate its close relation- 
ship to Cry -yptohelia of the West-African coast ; it 1s, moreover, 
a remarkable and significant fact that in many instances the 
lower half of the calyx is as it were thrust in upon the calicinal 
fossa; and this may be accepted as a disposition towards the 
extreme modification in the same region which obtains in that 
genus, where we find that the inferior half is folded back so as 
to entirely conceal the calicular fossa. The close proximity of 
the habitats whence these two genera have been procured also 
carries with it a highly important significance. 

The genus Endohelia of Milne-Edwards may possibly form 
the immediate intervening link connecting the two genera 
here compared. It is distinguished by having the inferior 
edge of the calices developed in a tongue-like form in front of 
the orifices, though to a less extent than in Cry ‘yptohelia ; the 
surface of the coenenchyma i is smooth, and both columella 
and pali are deficient. 


Dr. E. Stizenberger’s Analytical Key to the Lecides. 123 


Stenohelia complanata. 

Stylaster complanatus, Pourtales, Bulletin Mus, Comp. Zool, Cambridge, 

U.S. p. 115 (1867). 

This species very closely approaches the preceding, and, 
except for its minute size, is scarcely distinguishable from it. 
Such was the opinion entertained on reading Pourtales’s de- 
scription ; and a recent opportunity afforded me by Dr. Duncan, 
of consulting his type specimens, only confirmed me in the 
conclusion I had then arrived at. 


XV.—Notule Lichenologice. No. XXXII. 
By the Rev. W. A. LeiguTon, B.A., F.L.S., &e. 
Tue following Analytical Key is extracted from Dr. Ernst 
Stizenberger’s mc Monograph of Lecidea sabuletorum, F lirke, 
and the nenens allied to it,” in ‘ Acta Acad. Nat. Curios.’ 
vol. xxxiv., and will be ad serviceable to the student of 
that series of Lecidece with fusiform spores. 


Spores G-many-celled a. acaesicesas nee iy ts setae ewas sey ee 2, 
Spores (2—)4-celled ....0....ceecuoaet Plese AON aN epati enue ca 27. 
2 | Apothecia in section pale ......... see cecececeseeutenes 3. 
* VApothecia-in section darke ........ 0.0.00 cues “ORBAN Wier hs 20. 
3 j Apothecia without margin ...c. cece cece veseenees # Gaia dine 4, 
* ) Apothecia with persistent or evanescent TOATOAN « :6.5. «01,5 vlox's 12. 
j Colour of apothecia constantly pale or varying from pale reddish 
4, bop danls bro wally a vats eavkri aval dare nw tatia'a 3 ama tans aneeena ane 5. 
Colour of apothecia constantly brown to black .............. 9. 
~ jApothecia 03 millim. in diameter 11... ..0..scseereseueee, 6. 
°- | Apothecia 0-5 millim, in diameter .....s.0.0ssee0e: pete s ars be 
Thallus leprose, pale; fruit grey to black. Z. cinerea, Scheer. 
(Exs., Hepp, 21). 
6. \ Thallus powdery, sap-green; fruit yellowish. . cinerea, f. 


hypoleuca, Stizh. 
Spores 4 mik.* broad. LZ. cupr geen Nyl. (Mass. 211, 4a,B; 
Hepp, 512; Zw. 269, a; Arn. 265), 
Spores 8 miibrand nae Gan Mephesto hse ee 8. 
jBaraphypes compacted. L. sabuletorum, f. Kuliasii, Hepp. 
Paraphyses free. ZL. sabuletorum, f. subspheroides, Nyl. 
Apothecia 0:3 millim. in diameter... .......cesseeeeeeeneves 10, 
Apothecia 0°4-0°6 millim. in diameter........0.0.eteeeveces Ll. 
Spores 40 mik. long. L. chlorococca, Greewe (Stenh. 170). 
Spores 26 mik. long. L. chlorococca, v. brachysperma, Stizb. 


denen pale. L. sabuletorum, v. miliaria, Fr. (Zw. 121; 


N“N 


Ne) 


= 
i=) 


Leight. 210; Anzi, Langob. 148; "Mudd, 156, 158 ; Rabh, 322, 


603). 
See brownish, L. sabuletorum, v. miliaria, f. scolicio- 


sportoriles, Bagl. 
[* The “ mik.” probably = z5455 of an inch. | 


O* 


124 Dr. E. Stizenberger’s Analytical Key to the Lecidex. 


12 Apothecia constantly red. ..n..iessakwas nese s neo wee a at 13. 

* } A pothecm deep brown to, DIACK tocol ais sleels wel aise nin nena 16. 

Eig UUerMn Ta PRLC. — 65 ws plicepein lees Ete etree Niek (om ieitebeemenns 14. 

18. } Hypothecium ae OG = ee asic eR ANa nl aa ne os ie Wie ane ee 1. 
14. Spores 34-50 mik. long. L. sarcion, Stizb. (pleistomera olim). 


Spores 15-30 mik. long. ZL. eupreo-rosella, Nyl. 


15 Apothecia 0°5 millim. broad. Z. yrasino-rubella, Nyl. 
“* ) Apothecia 1 millim. broad. LZ. Andita, Nyl. 


( Spores 6-celled, exceptionally under 4-celled. LZ. Naegelii, Hepp 
(Hepp, 19; Anzi, Langob. 167, 879, id. Ven. 58; Rabh. 585 
16.3 536, 602 ; Zw. 87, A, c, 396), and L. sabuletorum, V. obscurata, 
Sommf. (Anzi, Langob. 166). 
nee normally 6-many-celled SGAE RE wings sha hte cuetmom aieue! ats Ke 


f Eb BOGNCRIGM TIAIG: (42 in vind wits Bhs ater eesvlo ns wie ele aetaielats 18. 


If | Hypothecium brown 


“I 


Apothecia 0:3 millim, in diameter, with persistent pale margin. 
L. cyrtelloides, Nyl. 

Apothecia 0°5-0°8 millim. in diameter, with evanescent margin, 
L. effusa, Auersw. (Rabh. 32). 


Apothecia 0:5-1 millim. in diameter. Z. sabuletorum, Flk. (Scheer. 
9. 
4 
| 


18. 


474; Hepp, 188, 159; Leight. 91; Mudd, 154; Rabh. 534, 601, 
625; Arn. 295; Zw. 84, 193; Anzi, It. S. 259, B). 
Apothecia 0:3-0°5 millim. in diameter. LZ. sabuletorum, f. ludens, 


1 


L. Nyl 
99, )Apothecia without margin ...... 06... eee ee see e ee eee eens 21. 
* | Apothecia with evanescent or persistent margin.,............ 24. 
er A pOred WNHEr OO NUE TONE Sua coher. eo acne seein aires vee ls aw aerecee 22. 
] [pores above oo mike lane 20k ve nies os cess ae ee oe 23. 
Apothecia 0:5 millim. in diameter; spores 23-4 times as long 
99 as broad. LL. comparanda, Nyl. ; 
‘) Apothecia 0:3 millim. in diameter; spores 43-5 times as long 
; as broad. LZ. guintula, Nyl. 
‘Spores under 40 mik. long. LZ. sabuletorum, v. miliaria, f. 
93 scolictosporioides, Bag. 
“*)Spores 40-70 mik. long. JL. sabuletorum, vy. decedens, Hepp 
(Arn. 233). 
94 Hymenium tinted blue by iodine ............ceceeveesvenee 25. 
* )Hymenium tinted yellow or violet by iodine ..............45 26. 
Thallus leprose. L. diploiza, Nyl. 
25. <Thallus scurfy. ZL. sabuletorum, v. syncomista, Flk. (Hepp. 280 ; 
Arn. 77, 183; Anzi, Langob. 165), 
Epithecium blue-green ; spores narrow. LL. sabuletorwm, v. syn- 
26 comista, f. apatela, Hepp. 
‘ ) Epithecium pale olive-colour; spores broad. L. sabuletorum, f. 
atrior, Stizb. 
97.) ‘Apoiecia. in section dark’ ioc solhsiete pote sata ee eters atin 28. 
* }Apothscia inbection palo” of .\.aliayp te bo bubb copes eee kee’ 45, 
9g, } Spores over AO) ATG AGED gs nin ae os le ee te oes et wk 29. 
Spores et most 20: mis Von ey. n ace cei ate a et ate ee o4. 
Apothecia with evanescent or persistent margin, 0-8-1°5 millim. 
29. In. diameters COR, «acca ss ee Neri RS metal pale aciouae eat 30 


Apothecia without margin, 0°7 millim. in diameter ..... ian Rael 


Dr. KE. Stizenberger’s Analytical Key to the Lecidee. 125 


Hymenium tinted vinous yellow by iodine; spores 21 mik. long. 
L. chytrina, Stizb. 

Hymenium tinted violet by iodine; spores 30 mik. long. LZ. 
sabuletorum, Vv. syncomista, f. fusispora, Hepp. 


if Hymenium tinted blue by iodine. L. triseptata, Hepp. 
30.< 


oie eypomectars bleck-hrowm | 2... .. dyna cine cesses ewig ait 32. 
* | Hypothecium pale or in some part brownish ................ 33. 


Hymenium violet or blue, above brown. LZ. melana, Nyl. (M. & 
39 N. 1829; Mudd, 159; Fellm, 159; Anzi, It. 8. 259). 
* ) Hymenium pale, above blue-green or brownish. L. sabuletorwm, 
v. synconusta, f. montana, Nyl. (Scheer. 194 pp.) 


/ Epithecium blue-green. L. sabuletorum, v. syncomista, f. holo- 

mela, Nyl. 

Epithecium and hypothecium pale brown. . sabuletorum, v. 

33. : : 

obscurata, f. artyta, Ach. 

Kpithecium dark brown; hypothecium pale. ZL. sabuletorum, v. 
obscurata, f. epimelas, Stizb. 

NPOUN PC a Wile Arey oe Shi ciay chsh 9) elsius eon agays s-ein, Sales ovals save 35. 


Apothecia with evanescent margin .............00cceeeeaee 36. 
Apothecia with persistent margiM... 2.0.6... 0 csc ence ee wees 41. 


34 


Hypothecium dark; spores 15 mik. long. LZ. sororiella, Nyl. 
Hypothecium dark; spores over 13 mik. long. L. melana, Nyl. 


pepotheeia | nnillinn. tm diameters 5 25. wots «s/c nsia siete eee ccee «gale 37. 


) sss colourless. L. thysanota, Tuck. 
: Apothecia: 0:5 millimy in’ diameter. 445 f4.)jc 0650 Se nes a eg d 38. 


( Hypothecium pale. LZ. byssomorpha, Nyl. 

Hypothecium red-brown; hymenium tinted wine-red by iodine. 
L. trachona, v. coprodes, Korb. 

37.4 Hypothecium red-brown; hymenium tinted blue by iodine. L. 
micromma, Nyl. (Arn. 282). 

Hypothecium brown-black. L. sabuletorum, v. syncomista, f. me- 

| lancholica, Stizh. 


Apothecia permanent black; thallus scurfy. Z. sabuletorum, v. 
syncomista, f. gamora, Stizb. 


38.< Apothecia permanent black; thallus finely granular. LZ. sabu- 
letorum, v. syncomista, f. Templetoni, 'Tayl. 
Apothecia with colour changeable into black ................ 39. 


( Hymenium with free paraphyses. L. pheomela, Nyl. 

(| Hymenium pale violet, with compact paraphyses. LZ. trachona, 
39. f. fragilis, Kremp. 

] Hymenium colourless, with brown epithecium and compact 


hope AMADA RRC, vd doaiatere ereedthaa: Liinrate Wales bscduraly Sarita s aeeeee 40, 
Apothecia 0-2-0°3 millim. in diameter. LZ. pinguwicula, Bagl. 
40. ; Apothecia 0°5 millim. in diameter. LZ. trachona, Ach. (Zw. 104, 
LZ): 
al pApothecia’ lmillumy ins diamietemys 2 a2 tars ub ih oe acacde we tas 42, 
>) Apotheeia.0'5' millim, in diameter. 3.01 s2%)oo.ces- ovcee’ wale 44, 


Apothecia permanently flat. LZ. artytoides, Nyl. 


= Aniothecie, ultimately conver. csschinen sas noses sihs.ts oes ole Oe 43, 


43 Spores 21 mik. long, plain. L. chytrina, Stizh. 
* | Spores 17 mik. long, constricted. L. chytrina,v.hormospora,Stizb, 


126 Dr, E. Stizenberger’s Analytical Key to the Lecidee. 


Apothecia 0°2 millim, broad, brown. L. mesomela, Nyl. 
Apothecia 0:3-0°5 millim, broad, brown. L. leucoblephara, Nyl. 


Apothecia 05 millim. broad, black. L. trachona, f. marginatula, 
Nyl. 
45, )Hymenium tinted blue by iodine ......... 0.0.5... eeeeeeees 46. 
* )Hymenium tinted violet or vinous-yellow by iodine .;,..,..,., 57. 
| Spores nearly acicular. LZ. cupreo-rosella, Nyl. 
’ | Spores elliptical, kidney-shaped, or fusiform ...,.....+++095 ae iE 
47, sApothecia without margin... ........cese scene eee eens pane Ak 
* ) Apothecia with evanescent or persistent margin,...,..0+-000+ 52. 
4g, )Apothecia permanently brown-black or black...........+++.. 49. 
Pwo tees, Varia Ale SF GOORIN kai. So’. uly paresis MEE OOM IONE. * 51. 


Apothecia very small; paraphyses free-branched. L. Nitsch- 
keana, Lahm (Rabh. 583 pp. ; Arn. 217). 
Apothecia large ; paraphyses compact or indistinct .......... 50. 


49, 


Apothecia flat; hymenium blue-green above. L. allotropa, Nyl. 

Apothecia hemispherical; hymenium blue-green above. L. sa- 
buletorum, v. miliaria, f. trisepta, Naeg. (Hepp, 20, 284, 285 ; 

50.4 Zw. 276; Korb. 133; Leight. 258; Hepp, 510 (non Leight. 
210); Arn. 167; Mudd, 157). 

Apothecia hemispherical; hymenium brown-black above, JL. 

| sabuletorum, vy. obscurata, f. epimelas, Stizh. 


{ Apothecia grey ; hypothecium colourless. L. Naegelit, f. occulta, 
Stizb. 
51 | Apothecia red-brown ; hypothecium colourless. Z. Naegelit, v. 
: obscuriuscula, Nyl. 
Apothecia red-brown to brown, within flesh-coloured. LZ. sabu- 
letorum, v. obscurata, f. microcarpa, Th., Fr. 


\ 
52 Apothecia oyer 0°65 millim, in diameter /....4:)c.5.000s00va> 55, 
“ | Apothecia under 0°5 millim. in diameter.........-00,.0ee00s 54, 
r 


Spores 30 mik. long; thallus finely granular, thin, LZ. sabu- 
letorum, v. obscurata, Sommf. (Anzi, Langob, 166; Hepp, 11 
7 pp.; Zw. 193 pp.). 
| Brome 30 mik. long; thallus verrucoso-scurfy. L. sabuletorum, 
v. obscurata, f. leucorhypara, Nyl, 


Spores Ab most 20 tiks lone was: se aes ee eh awns Maa wlew ree. 2) ODS 


54, Spores above 20 Tike one o se oncccuvobnaekrGt wis une ei .. 56, 


55 Margin persistent, L. trachona, v. Notarisiana, Bag), 
* ) Margin evanescent. LL. trachona, Ach. 


letorum, v. obscurata, f. venusta, Hepp. 


Spores narrow, 4 mik. broad; epithecium colourless. ZL. sabu- 
of Spores broad, 6 mik, and more; epithecium yellowish or brown. 
L, Naegelii, Hepp. 
57 ‘Amothacia without margin . oss Pak 8 EO. este Hee toe ales etre 58. 
* ) Apothecia with evanescent or persistent margin ............. 62. 
. (Apothecia black, small. LZ. Mitsehkeana, Lahm. 
59, )Apothecia black, large. L. sabuletorum, vy. miliaria, f. simpli- 
. ctor, Nyl. 
[ Wecmiecia PRLS on eG. jnea sins te a + muepnlel eRe eNE PRET CES 59. 
59. Une flat; paraphyses none. L, metamorphea, Nyl. 


Apothecia slightly convex; paraphyses compact .......+...- 60. 


Bibliographical Notices. 127 


Thallus nearly wanting. L. spherovdes, f. peralbata, Ny). 
60. ; Thallus powdery. L. spheroides, f. microbola, Ach. 


Thallasvermicoso-pranulate. :;.. 5:6 sep <li eibes arb 4k Mages > 61. 
61, | Spores 24 mik. long. L. spheroides, f. leucococca, Nyl. 
* ) Spores 19 mik. long. LZ. cupreo-rosella, v. chloroticovdes, Nyl. 
gg, )Apothecia 0°8-1 millim. in diameter. ................++0005- 67. 
“ | Apothecia at most 0-7 millim. in diameter ..............55-- 63. 
Apothecia constantly dark. LZ. sabuletorum, v. miliaria, f. sphe- 
63 ralis, Fr. 
Apothecia pale or gradually darkened ...,......nsssereeeres 64. 
g4, | Paraphyses wanting or deliquescent..............5.eee eeu 65. 
2 eberapltyses: nestely AVe6 5:5 c's /otels die caiale sie s/apngs oaterabeopapaeekel ol 66. 
Hymenium at first tinted blue, then violet, by iodine. L. rujfi- 
65 dula, Greewe. 
“ ) Hymenium at first tinted blue, then vinous yellow, by iodine. 
L. spheroirdes, f. epixanthoides, Nyl. 
Spores 4-5 times as long as broad. L. cupreo-rosella, v. fusco- 
66 viridis, Anzi (Anzi, Langob. 403). 
*) Spores 23-33 times as long as broad, L. spheroides, v. tylo- 
carpa, Nyl. 
g7, )Apothecia gradually darkened into black ...........,+..+++5 68. 
* ) Apothecia constant pale yellow or red-brown................ 70. 
68 Corticolar. LZ. spheroides, f. versatilis, Nyl. 
Dae OlMNe otc ienitentah ai sonis hae Aina eat ciplmilohene tone Cane me 69, 
Spores 20 mik. long. L. cupreo-rosella, v. fuscoviridis, f. hygro- 
69 phila, Stizb. (Arn. 20). 
*)Spores 30 mik. long. LZ. sabuletorum, vy. obscurata, f. muri- 
cola, Nyl. 
Apothecia sessile. Z. spheroides, Dicks. (Fellm. 158; <Anzi, 
S Langob. 261; Hepp, 513; Scheer. 207 pp. ; Zw. 277). 
‘ )Apothecia substipitate, pale below. LL. spheroides, v. substipi- 
tata, Nyl. 


BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTICES. 


Flora Europea Algarum aque dulcis et submarine. Auctore Lv- 
povico Rasrnnorst, Philos. Dr., Ordinis Albrecht. Equite, Acad. 
et Societ. plur. Sodali. 


Tar completion of Dr. Rabenhorst’s work upon the European 
freshwater Algze cannot fail to be acceptable to those botanists who 
have directed their attention to these much-neglected and ill- 
understood organisms. The advance which has been made during 
the last twenty years in the knowledge of these plants has almost 
rendered obsolete what had previously been written upon the subject. 
In England there is literally no work sufficient for students of 
freshwater Algee. The ‘English Flora,’ Dillwyn and Greville, must 
now be looked upon as antiquated, and Hassall and Harvey’s ‘Manual’ 
as out of date. The great work of the latter author, viz. the 
‘ Phycologia Britannica,’ is limited to marine species. Mr. Berke- 


128 Bibliographical Notices. 


ley’s ‘Introduction to Cryptogamic Botany ’ abounds with interest- 
ing remarks upon various genera, but does not profess to systema- 
tize lower than orders. The treatises of Mr. Ralfs and of the late 
Professor Smith have deservedly acquired a classical reputation ; 
but they are only monographs of special families. There is an 
immense amount of accurate information scattered through the 
pages of the ‘ Micrographic Dictionary, which, if co'lected, ar- 
ranged, and somewhat amplified, would go a long way towards sup- 
plying the deficiency. Dr. Gray’s useful ‘ Handbook’ is only in- 
tended as a catalogue to assist in the arrangement of Algze for the 
herbarium, and does not contain any specific characters. 

It is therefore a great satisfaction to meet with a work which has 
gathered up the great mass of scattered information relative to the 
Algze of Europe which inhabit fresh or brackish water; it affords 
a sort of resting-place from which to start afresh for the investiga- 
tion of the numberless questions which still remain to be deter- 
mined with regard to the plants now under review. No one would 
be more ready than Dr. Rabenhorst himself to admit that his work, 
valuable as it is, is far from exhaustive of the subject. As regards 
one great tribe, his Phycochromophycee, he himself remarks that our 
knowledge is still ‘ valde imperfecta et manca ;” and indeed it may 
be a question, as will be seen in the sequel, whether most of the 
genera of this division may not prove to be wholly inadmissible. 

With these preliminary remarks, we will proceed to give some 
account of the contents of the work before us. 

Dr. Rabenhorst (as is perhaps unavoidable in treating only of the 
freshwater Algee) departs somewhat from the hitherto generally re- 
ceived classification. Instead of dividing the group into Chloro- 
sperms, Rhodosperms, and Melanosperms, he constitutes five classes : 
—l. Diatomophycee (or Diatomacee); 2. Phycochromophycee ; 
3. Chlorophyllophycee ; 4. Melanophycee ; and 5. Rhodophycee. Of 
these, the three latter comprise such of the Algze of the three divi- 
sions just mentioned as are not removed into the Diatomophycee and 
Phycochromophycee. 

With regard .o the first class (the Diatomophycee or Diatomacee*), 
there will probably be few botanists who will object to their having 
a separate division assigned to them. Their very remarkable struc- 
ture, their mode of reproduction, their apparent want of immediate 
affinity with any other of the plants known as “ Alge,” afford 
quite sufficient grounds for keeping them by themselves. They seem 
out of place amongst the Chlorosperms, to which they have been 
hitherto referred, and if removed from that division it would be 
impossible to do otherwise than to make them a class by themselves. 

Dr. Rabenhorst divides the Diatomacee into fourteen families. 

To go at any length into the discussion of these would occupy 


* The term Diatomophycee has evidently only been adopted to pre- 
serve a kind of uniformity of nomenclature with the other four classes ; 
but it is an awkward expression, and will certainly not be allowed to 
displace the well-known name “ Diatomacee.” 


Bibliographical Notices. 129 


more space than can be allotted to the whole of this review ; but 
comparing these ‘“ families” with the “ cohorts” adopted by Pro- 
fessor Henfrey in the ‘Micrographie Dictionary,’ and with the 
“‘oroups” of Mr. Carruthers * in Dr. Gray’s ‘ Handbook,’ we find 
little substantial difference. 

With regard to the last family, the Actiniscee, it has been 
questioned whether any of the genera there included, viz. Dic- 
tyocha, Actiniscus, Mesocena, and Eucampia, ought to be included in 
the Diatomacee. Dictyocha and Mesocena have been supposed to be 
spicules of Echinodermata, and EHucampia has been placed by Kut- 
zing in the Desmidiaceew, and by Smith in the Diatomacee. Dr. 
Rabenhorst admits that in habit and structure they differ widely from 
all Diatomacee, but he considers that, having regard to their siliceous 
covering, they ought not to be excluded from the class. 

Dr. Rabenhorst’s second class is the Phycochromophycee. It has 
been remarked above that there will probably be no objection raised 
to the separation of the Diatomacee from the other freshwater 
Alge; but the same can hardly be said of the class Phycochromo- 
phycee, which can only be looked upon as temporary. 

The nature of phycochrom is not yet very well understood. The 
term was invented by Nigeli in his ‘ Einzellige Algen,’ where, 
after stating that in most of the unicellular Algze the colouring- 
matter is chlorophyll, he says :— 


“Tn other genera of unicellular Algze, especially in the Chroococcacee, 
the cell-contents exhibit a peculiar colouring-matter.... It is usually 
bluish green (verdigris-green), very often orange or brick-red ; sometimes 
it is violet- or copper-coloured, very rarely blue, yellow, or pure red.” 


Cohn, in speaking of the Oscillarinee, says that the verdigris- 
green colouring-matter of these plants, the phycochrom of Nigeli, 
is a compound body, consisting of a green substance insoluble in 
water, but soluble in alcohol and ether, viz. chlorophyll, and of a 
substance (conversely) soluble in water and insoluble in alcohol and 
ether, which he calls phycocyan. 

He says that, in living cells, both colouring-matters combine to 
form a compound colour, the phycochrom of Niigeli. Dr. Aske- 
nasy, in his papers in the ‘ Botanische Zeitung’+, discusses the 
remarkable optical properties (fluorescence and the bands of ab- 
sorption produced in the spectrum) which are exhibited by chloro- 
phyll, and by the colouring-matter of the Floridee, of Peltigera canina, 
and of Collema; and at the conclusion of his remarks he says— 


“With regard to the names phycochrom of Nageli and rhodophyll { 
of Cohn, I believe that they are now superfluous; for they signify 


* Mr. Carruthers’s arrangement is that of Ralfs, with some modifica- 
tions by Meneghini, Kiitzing, and others. 

+ “Beitrige zur Kenntniss des Chlorophyll und einigen dasselbe be- 
gleitender Farbstoffe,” Bot. Zeit. July 19 & 26, 1867. 

{ Cohn’s ‘‘rhodophyll” is the reddish-brown colouring-matter of the 
Floridee. 


130 Bibliographical Notices. 


nothing more than the mixture of chlorophyll with other various colour- 
ing-matters, whose peculiarities have hitherto only been satisfactorily 
ascertained in a few instances.” 


The tint of phycochrom is so easily distinguishable by the eye 
from the other colouring-matters of Algw, that there is a tempta- 
tion to combine together all those plants whose cells contain it ; but 
the class (Phycochronophycee) can only be looked upon as provisional, 
as a sort of “refugium” for a vast number of heterogeneous or- 
ganisms, few if any of which are really autonomous. It may not 
be without interest to go shortly through the orders and families 
into which the class is divided, and to call attention to some of the 
genera whose right to the designation of Alge has been called in 
question. 

Dr. Rabenhorst divides his Phycochromophycee into two orders, 
the Cystiphore and the Nematogene. The Cystiphore consist of 
one family, the Chroococcacee ; and the Nematogene of five families, 
the Oscillariacew, the Nostochacee, the Rivulariacee, the Scytone- 
macece, and Sirosiphonacee. 

With regard to the Chroococcacee, it is highly probable that 
many of the so-called genera of the family are nothing more than 
phases of the gonidia of lichens. This notion has been making pro- 
gress lately; but its origin is not of very recent date. In one of 
the latest papers * on the subject, Dr. Itzigsohn gives the result of 
a series of observations on the culture of the gonidia of Peltigera 
canina. He says that the mode of growth observed in them iden- 
tifies these gonidia entirely with the Chroococcacew, and that in the 
process of development he has seen them assume the forms of the 
genera Gleocapsa, Glaothece, and Aphanothece. 

Again, Messrs. Famintzin and Boranetzky, in their observations 
in the ‘ Mémoires de l’Acad. de St. Pétersbourg’ (which are to be 
found also in the ‘ Botanische Zeitung’ for March 13, 1868, and 
in the 8th volume of the current series of the ‘Annales des 
Sciences Naturelles’), have arrived at the conclusion that Cysto- 
coccus and Polycoccus (to say nothing of Nostoc) are only states of 
the gonidia of lichens. If this be true of Cystococeus and Poly- 
coccus, it is hardly possible to doubt that the same will be eventually 
proved to be the case with such genera as Aphanocapsa, Micro- 
cystis, Anacystis, Polycystis, and Colospherium, as also with Homa- 
lococcus, which consists of one species, the Coccochloris hyalina of 
Meneghini. It is hardly too much to say that Gomphospheria is 
not generically distinguishable from Glwocapsa ; and, considering 
what is now known, it may safely be asserted that no one would, 
at the present day, think of making a genus of Chroococcus or 
Synechococcus. With the above eliminations the family of the 
Chroococcacee would be reduced to the genera Clathrocystis, Me- 
rismopedia, and Oncobyrsa. Clathrocystis was established by Pro- 
fessor Henfrey in the ‘ Microscopical Journal’ for 1855, He seems 
to have separated it from Polycystis only because that name 


* Botanische Zeitung, March 20, 1862. 


Bibliographical Notices. 131 


had been preoccupied in the Fungi, a reason which would not 
now be considered sufficient. Dr. Rabenhorst’s definition tells the 
true tale of its origin, “ Polycystis thallo gelatinoso, initio solido, 
etate provecta clathrato.” It is, in fact, nothing more than a Poly- 
cystis the gelatine of which has become ruptured and perforated as 
it has advanced in age. Of Merismopedia it may be remaked that 
it is with difficulty, i at all, to be distinguished from Sarcina *; 
and if Sarcina (as some good authorities consider) is in reality not 
an alga but a fungus, the validity of the genus may not unreason- 
ably be questioned. With regard to Oncobyrsa it appears (we have 
not the work to refer to) to have been placed by Meneghini 
amongst the Nostochinee ; and if this be correct, the genus can 
hardly be supported after the observations of many past years 
tending to show the connexion between Nostoc and the Collema- 
ceous lichens, 

It would be going into too much detail to discuss at any length 
the other five families of Dr. Rabenhorst’s Phycochromophycew. 
Doubts may be entertained whether many (if any) of the genera 
of the Oscillariacee are autonomous, but they may reasonably be 
retained here in the absence of indications of closer affinities else - 
where. With regard to one of the genera, viz. Lyngbya, it has 
been stated that it does not oscillate, at least when in long fila- 
ments, which raises a doubt whether its proper position (assuming 
it be a good genus) is with the Oscillariacee. Dr. Hicks has 
suggested (Micr. Journ. n. s. vol. i. p. 164) that Lyngbya muralis, 
Schizogonium, and Prasiola are but different stages of the same 
organism ; but it is doubtful how far this view can be supported ; 
for the two latter are chlorophyllaceous Algz, which would seem to 
render improbable any close connexion between them and Lyngbya, 
which is phycochromaceous *. 

With regard to the Nostochacee, the discussions which have 
taken place as to their nature and affinities. would fill a volume. 
It was long since suggested that most if not all of the plants 
usually placed in this family are only conditions of gelatinous 
lichens—an opinion which is now gaining ground, notwithstanding 
Mr. Berkeley’s high authority on the other side, who says, in his 
‘ Introduction to Cryptogamic Botany’ (p. 141), that he cannot sub- 
scribe to this doctrine. Nylander is of opinion that the Nostoc of 
modern algologists, in part at least, if not entirely, may be re- 
garded as the initial or metamorphic states of the Collemata; and 
he even goes further, and considers that he has added to the lichens 
various Scytonemata and Sirostphones, such as Synalissa picina, 
S. melodermia, &e.t 

Dr. De Bary suggests a singular alternative theory, which is 


* In the ‘ Botanische Zeitung’ for January 10, 1868, Hallier states 
that Sarcina differs from Mertsmopedia in its mode of division. 

+ See some pop by Mx. Archer in the Proc. Nat. Hist. Soc. of 
Dublin, vol. iv. p. 2 

t See ‘ Notulee eae translated by Leighton in Ann. & Mag. 
Nat. Hist. for November 1868, 


133 Biliographical Notices. 


worthy of notice here. After discussing the question of relation- 
ship between the gelatinous lichens and certain Algze, he says :— 


“ With these data it can hardly be doubted that a large proportion of 
the Nostochacee and Chroococcacee are closely allied to the gelatinous 
lichens, such as Ephebe &c. But the question as to the nature of the 
alliance remains to be investigated. If I might express my indivi- 
dual opinion, the reasons for which cannot here be given, I should say 
that two theories suggest themselves. Hither the lichens in question 
are the fully developed fructifying states of plants whose immature 
forms have hitherto been placed amongst the Algze, or the Nostochacce 
and Chroococcacee are typical Algze and assume the forms of Collemata, 
Ephebe, &c., from the fact that certain parasitical Ascomycetes penetrate 
into them, distribute their mycelium into the growing thallus, and often 
become attached to the phycochromaceous cells of the former. In the 
latter case, the plants in question would be pseudo-lichens, similar to 
the Pheenogams deformed by parasitic fungi, as, for instance, Euphorbia 
degener &c.” 


The family of the Rivulariacee is the most interesting of the 
six into which the class Phycochromophycee is divided. Much doubt 
still exists as to the real nature of the plants composing it ; and in 
a recent well-known work, the ‘Traité Général de Botanique,’ by 
Le Maout and Decaisne, the family is swept away with a number 
of others under the title of Alge spuriw. Those eminent botanists 
say (/. c. p. 718) :— 

“We combine under the title of doubtful Algze (Alge spurie) a certain 
number of ill-known genera, which are probably only degraded types of 
the preceding families ; these are the Algze out of which have been formed 
the Rivulariee, the Oscillariee, the Nostochinee, the Palmellee, and the 
Volvocinee.”’ 


Nevertheless several of the Rivulariacee are objects of great 
beauty, well deserving of careful study. Some of the so-called 
genera admitted by Dr. Rabenhorst appear rather too closely 
allied to one another; but perhaps, until more is known of them, it 
is safer and more useful to keep them distinct. Dr. Rabenhorst 
divides the family into two subfamilies—the Rivulariee, distin- 
guished by a rounded thallus which is either gelatinous or induraved, 
and the Mastigotrichie, with a thallus indefinitely expanded and 
often crustaceous. In the present imperfect state of our know- 
ledge of the reproduction of these plants, it is impossible to specu- 
late as to how far any of the proposed genera will be permanent *. 

The Scytonemacee form the fifth family of this class. Most of 
the genera arranged in it have hitherto been classed with the Oscil- 
lariacee. Some are remarkable for the peculiarity of the mucous 
sheath in which the filaments are enveloped; for instance, the 
interrupted sheath of Drilosiphon and the feathered covering of 
Arthrosiphon (or Petalonema) are objects worthy. of the careful 


* With regard to one of the genera, Znomeria, which is described by 
Dr. Rabenhorst as “admodum dubium,” the reader should consult a 
paper in the Ann. d. Sc. Nat. 5° sér. vol. vi., “ Recherches sur l’organisa- 
tion du genre Inomeria, Kg.,” by M. Ripart. 


Bibliographical Notices. 133 


attention of microscopic observers. It would be interesting to 
follow the development of such genera as Drilosiphon and Schizo- 
thrix, and trace the changes in the mucous envelope from the early 
to the mature state of the plants. 

The sixth and last family of the Prycochromophycee is the Siro- 
siphonacee. Omitting Stigonema as a genus “incerte sedis,” it 
consists of but four genera. Of these, Mastigocladus forms a spongy 
stratum, and Fischera a gelatinous one, in hot baths in Italy. 
Hapalosiphon is the Polypothriv of Kiitzing, from which it has 
been separated on account of its mode of ramification, which is 
supposed to point to a higher grade of evolution. The remaining 
genus is Sirosiphon or (as it ought perhaps to be called) Hassallia, 
remarkable for its multiseriate gloeocapsoid cells. Strosiphon, as 
well as the genera of the Scytonemacee above alluded to, was for- 
merly placed with the Oscillatorie ; and Mr. Berkeley, in his ‘ In- 
troduction to Cryptogamic Botany,’ remarks of it :— 


“Tt may perhaps be doubted whether any of the species of Strosiphon, 
beautiful as they are, are autonomous. At any rate, their mode of 
growth and ramification are totally different from those of other Oscé/- 
latorie. It is a single endochrome which bursts through the investing 
tube and constitutes a branch, a character by which the species are at 
once known from Scytonema.” 


Dr. De Bary, in the second volume of Hofmeister’s ‘Handbuch der 
physiologischen Botanik,’ speaks more decidedly. He says (p. 291) 
that the thin branches of the thallus of Ephebe pubescens represent 
typical forms of the genus Strosiphon, that true and unquestion- 
able examples of Strosiphon occur in the tufts of Hphebe, and that 
it may often be seen that they spring like branches from the threads 
of the Ephebe. 

We come now to Dr. Rabenhorst’s third class, the Chlorophyl- 
lacee. These he divides into four orders, the Coccophycee, Zygophy- 
cee, Siphophycee, and Nematophycee. The Coccophycee contain 
the families Palmellacee, Protococcacee, and Volvocinee. Many of 
the genera in the first two families have been subjected to the same 
objections as have been raised against so many of the genera in the 
Chroococcacee, viz. that they are not autonomous, but only states of 
higher Algz, or perhaps of the gonidia of lichens. Nevertheless 
(with perhaps one or two exceptions) it will probably be thought 
that Dr. Rabenhorst has done we'll in not reducing the number of 
genera ; for although many may hereafter prove to be not maintain- 
able, it would as yet be premature to make any considerable reduc- 
tion. The present status of several of these genera is very appro- 
priately stated by Mr. Archer, in some remarks which occur in a 
paper on Palmogloan Alge, in the fourth volume of the ‘ Proceed- 
ings of the Natural-History Society of Dublin.” Mr. Archer is 
combating the views of Dr. Hicks, whom he seems to suspect of 
wishing to abolish the Palmellacee in a body. He (Mr. Archer) 
says :— 


“Many of the Palmellacean genera produce a very definite structure, 


134 Bibliographical Notices. 


even what may be called a frond, and sometimes very definite forms of 
the individual cells themselves. 

“So readily do these specialities strike the eye, when once they have 
been seen, that, on their recurrence, they are at once recognizable. The 
generic names Apiocystis, Schizochlamys, Palmodactylon, Tetraspora, Mo- 
nostroma (Ulva, in part), Dictyospherium, Oocardium, Hormospora, Ne- 
phrocytium, Mischococcus, Ankistrodesmus (Rhaphidium), Polyedium, 
Cystococcus, Dactylococeus, Characium, Ophiocytium, Scenedesmus, Pedi- 
astrum, Colastrum, Sorastrum, Eremosphera, and many more, all call 
to mind, in a moment, forms which, some rarely, some frequently, pre- 
sent themselves to notice, maintain their characteristics while at the 
same time no true generative process has been discovered, and reproduce 
themselves by diverse modes of cell-division, by zoospores, by ‘ brood- 
families,’ &c. They are also found maintaining their characters in 
various places; and I think it is not readily conceivable what varied 
accidental concatenation of circumstances could, in so diverse localities, 
force a certain supposed gonidium of a lichen, or spore of a moss, now to 
develope into this well-defined form, now into that. Therefore, if, on 
the one hand, such genera, perhaps, as Chroococcus, Gileocapsa, Synecho- 
coccus, Gileothece (in Chroococcacee), and Plewrococcus, Gleocystis, and 
Palmella (in Palmellacee) seem, from Dr. Hicks’s researches, to be in 
jeopardy, it surely appears to me as yet that it would be an incautious 
and too hasty conclusion to sweep away all ‘ Palmellacee.’”’ 


With the exception of Tetraspora, Cystococcus, and perhaps 
of Eremosphera, the validity, for the present at least, of the 
genera mentioned by Mr, Archer will hardly be disputed. It would 
occupy too much space to discuss further the Palmellacew and Proto- 
coccacee ; and it is unnecessary to say more of the Volvocinewe than 
that the organisms composing the family are here, for the first time, 
classified in a systematic work on Algz, and that they will doubt- 
less retain their position, notwithstanding that so late as last year 
they were placed by MM. Le Maout and Decaisne amongst their 
“ Algee spurise”™*, 

The order Zygophycee is a very natural one, comprising the 
families Desmidiew and Zyquemee. The former of these families 
has been made familiar to all who have paid any attention to Algze, 
by Mr. Ralfs’s famous work. Upwards of twenty years have passed 
since that work was published; and although, of course, many new 
species have since been described, we find little alteration of genera. 
Stauroceras is only a form of Closteriwn; Pleurotenium and T'riplo- 
ceras are closely allied to Docidium; Geminella is a plant of which 
little seems to be known. The genus was established by Turpin in 
1828, in the ‘ Mém. du Muséum histoire naturelle,’ vol. xvi. 

The only other genus admitted by Dr. Rabenhorst, and which we 
do not find in Mr. Ralfs’s work, is Gonatozygon of De Bary, which 
is very near to Docidium, and is identical with Mr. Archer’s Lepto- 
cystinema. Ten genera are placed by Dr. Rabenhorst in the 
Zygnemee +, There is some confusion, as has been pointed out by 


* An important paper, by M. Pringsheim, on sexual reproduction in 
Pandorina and Eudorina (two of the Volvocinez) has quite recently ap- 
peared in the ‘ Monatsbericht’ of the Berlin Academy. 

+ The nomenclature is not always uniform. “Zygneme” (p. 101, 


Bibliographical Notices. 135 


M. Ripart (Ann. d. Sc. Nat. 5° sér. vol. 1x. p. 80), with regard to 
Mougeotia. Mougeotia genuflewa is figured at p. 112 in the ‘ Con- 
spectus Generum,’ but in the description at p. 258 it is made a 
synonym of Pleurocarpus mirabilis, Al. Br. If Plewrocarpus 
mérabilis, Al. Br., and Mougeotia genuflewa were really identical 
(which, however, is probably not the case), there could be no possi- 
ble ground for the substitution of the name Plewrocarpus for that 
of Mougeotia, the latter having been established by Agardh in 1824, 
more than thirty years before the date of Braun’s Plewrocarpus. 

The remaining genera of the Zygnemee call for no special remark, 
except that it is very doubtful whether Mesocarpus is worthy of 
being retained, or whether it ought not to be united with Mougeotia. 

The Siphophycee constitute a small order, divided into two familes, 
the Hydrogastre and the Vauwcheriacee. Each family is composed of 
only one genus. The former is represented by Hydrogastrum, Desy., 
better known under the name Botrydium, which name, however, is 
of five ye.rs’ later date. The latter family is formed of the genus 
Vauwcheria, which of late years has been the subject of interesting 
observations with regard to its method of impregnation. 

Dr. Rabenhorst’s fourth order, the Nematophycee, is divided by him 
into seven families:—1. Ulvacee; 2. Spheropleacew; 3. Confer- 
vacee ; 4. Gdogoniacee ; 5. Ulotrichee ; 6. Chroolepidiee ; 7. Cheto- 
phoree. Inthe Ulvacee we have six genera, the first four of which, 
viz. Protoderma, Prasiola, Physodictyon, and Schizomeris, are very 
obscure, nothing whatever being known of their mode of propagation, 
not even zoospores having been observed. The other two genera 
are the well-known Enteromorpha and Ulva. It would be bold to 
question the validity of these long-established genera; but, unless 
Robin’s assertions are correct (and, although made some years since, 
they do not appear to be confirmed), no sexual reproduction is 
known; and the occurrence of zoospores is a matter of little moment 
now that it is known that those bodies are not confined to Alge, 
but that they occur also in genera of Fungi, such as Cystopus, 
Peronospora, and Trichia, and, under favourable circumstances, 
even in the gonidia of lichens. 

The second family of the Nematophycee is the Spheropleacee, 
represented by the single genus Sphwroplea, which possesses but 
one species, Spheroplea annulina, a plant growing in Germany in 
flooded fields, and extremely interesting from the observations made 
a few years since by Cohn with regard to its sexual reproduction*. 

The Confervacee (the third family), as limited by Dr. Rabenhorst, 
consists of but nine genera, the best-known of which is Cladophora, 
of which nine species are described; but the well-known variability 
of the plant is exemplified by the number of divisions, forms, Kc. 
into which the genus is cut up. In the present work the three 


Part III.) are called “ Zygnemacee ” at p.110. So, afterwards, ‘ Ulo- 
trichee ” (p. 286) are called “ Ulotrichacer” at p. 360; and “Cheeto- 
phoreve ’’ (p. 287) are called “‘ Cheetophoracez ” at p. 374. 

* See Ann. d. Sc. Nat. 4° sér. vol. v. p. 187. 


136 Bibliographical Notices. 


primary divisions are:—1l, those Cladophorw which are attached 
when young, and afterwards float freely in the form of tufts; 2, 
those which are always attached; and, 3, those which are at first 
attached, and afterwards form globular masses which are often 
free. This last division includes Cladophora cegagropila. It 
is doubtful whether this third division c.n be maintained. The 
eight forms of Cladophora egagropila here described all grow in 
still water, and may possibly be only forms of C. glomeraia, modi- 
fied by their place of growth. Professor Henfrey* considered Cla- 
dophora cegagropila to be identical with C. glomerata; and Mr. 
Hassall, in his ‘ Freshwater Algie,’ took the same view with regard 
to C. Brownii, which is classified by Dr. Rabenhorst as one of the 
forms of C. agagropila, On the other hand, Dr. Harvey states 
that Robert Brown (who first described it as Conferva pulvinata), 
Mr. Kalfs, and himself agreed in considering it a perfectly distinct 
species, at least as well characterized as any other specific form in 
the genus Cladophora, and better characterized than several reputed 
speciest. 

The fourth family, the Wdogoniacew, comprises three genera, 
Gdogonium, Cymatonema, and Bulbochete. Much interest has at- 
tached to the former genus, on account of Pringsheim’s beautiful 
observations upon the mode of impregnationt in some of the 
species. Many species remain, amounting in this work to upwards 
of thirty, in which the antheridia and oogonia are either unknown 
or require further investigation, affording a fine field for the atten- 
tion of algologists. With regard to Cymatonema, the genus seems 
quite unnecessary : and Dr. Rabenhorst i is apparently of this opinion; 
for although it is figured in the ‘Conspectus Generum,’ the descrip- 
tion in the text (p. 351) makes Cymatonema a synonym of the 
original name of the plant, @dogonium undulatum, Bréb. Of Bul- 
bochete there are nine well-established species, besides seven others 
unknown to the author or of doubtful validity. 

The fifth family, the Ulotrichew, seems to require further con- 
sideration. It contains the genera Hormiscia, Ulothrix, Hormidium 
(which is only the terrestrial form of Ulothria), and Schizogonium. 
Except for the occurrence of two kinds of zoospores (megazoospores 
and microzoospores, as Areschoug § has called them), Hormiscia 
might well have been placed in the Confervacee. Ulothrix has 
hitherto been considered an ally of Draparnaldia, and Stigeoclo- 
nium and Schizogonium might with great propriety be placed in 
the Ulvacee. It does not appear that the occurrence of two kinds 
of zoospores (one of the main features of the family) has been noticed 
in Ulothrix or in Schizogonium. 

The Chroolepidiee (fam. 6) comprise only two genera, Chroolepus 


* Micr. Dict. p. 159. 

+ ‘Phycologia Britannica,’ remarks under plate xxx. 

{ Jahrbiicher fiir wissenschaftliche Botanik, vol. i. p. 1. 

§ Aresch. Obs. phycol. in Act. Reg. Soe. Scient, Ups. ser. 3. vol. vi. 
fase. 1 (1866). 


Bibliographical Notices. Tae 


and Bulbotrichia. Of the latter little seems to be known; and the 
real nature of Chroolepus cannot be said to be yet ascertained. The 
plants composing the genus were formerly regarded, sometimes as 
Fungi, sometimes as Alge; and it was thought, when Caspary dis- 
covered the zoospores of C. aureus, that its place was fixed with 
the Alge*. After all, however, there seem to be grounds for sup- 
posing that some of the species (and if some, perhaps all) are 
nothing more than peculiar states of the germ-filaments of mosses. 

Of the Cheophorew (Family 7), the most remarkable genera 
are Chetophora, Draparnaldia (Stigeoclonium is almost identical 
with it), Coleochete, and Aphanochete, to which latter genus Dr. 
Rabenhorst (in the text, p. 391) refers the very curious plant 
Ochlochete hystrix, which was discovered by Mr. Thwaites in fresh- 
water ditches near Bristol upon the leaves of mosses, and by the 
Rev. W. Smith on the stems of grasses, in brackish water, near 
Wareham in Dorsetshire. The plant.is beautifully figured in Dr. 
Harvey’s ‘ Phycologia Britannica’ (pl. 226). He suggests that the 
freshwater and the brackish-water forms may be distinct. Dra- 
parnaldia is a genus which has not been allowed to pass un- 
challenged. Dr. Hicks, in a paper published in the ‘Trans- 
actions of the Linnean Society,’ and in another paper very recently 
read before the same Society, has suggested that Draparnaldia (or 
some of the forms of it at least) may be only states of the germ- 
filaments of mosses. It seems certain, however, that Draparnaldia 
glomerata produces resting spores, and this seems to point to some- 
thing higher than the transitory condition of a germ-filament of a 
moss. 

The Melanophycee, which constitute the fourth class in this work, 
will not detain us long; for the only freshwater plant is Plewro- 
cladia lacustris, A. Braun, remarkable for its zoospores, which are 
produced in two different ways. The cells producing them are 
called trichosporangia and zoosporangia. The latter are single 
cells from which the zoospores are produced in a mass, by division 
of the cell-contents in the usual way. The trichosporangia are 
septate threads, in each cell of which a single zoospore is produced ; 
but these zoospores, instead of escaping each from its own parent 
cell, make their way out through the ruptured apical cell of the 
trichosporangium. One other plant, the well-known Fucus vesicu- 
losus, Linn., is admitted here as an Alga “ aque submarine,” 
being found in rivers as long as the water remains brackish. 

We have now reached the last class (Class V.), the Rhodophycec. 
This is divided into five families: —1. Porphyracee ; 2. Chantransi- 
acee; 3. Batrachospermacee ; 4, Hildenbrandtiacee ; and 5. Le- 
maneacee. 

The two genera in the first division (for Porphyra is entirely 
marine) are Porphyridium, Nag., and Bangia. The former is the 
old Palmella cruenta of Agardh. The two principal species of 
Bangia, viz. B. atro-purpurea and B. fusco-purpurea, are peculiar, 


* Regensb. Flora, 1858. Micr. Journ. vol. viii. p. 159, 
Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 4. Vol. v. 10 


138 Bibliographical Notices. 


from the circumstance of their flourishing equally either in fresh 
or in salt water. The fructification of Bangia has hitherto been ob- 
scure; it has recently been investigated by Dr. Cohn in ‘ Schulze’s 
Archiv,’ 1867, Band ii. 

In the second family, the Chantransiacee, there is but one genus, 
Chantransia. And the third family, the Batrachospermacee, con- 
tains only two, Batrachospermum and Thorea, The former genus 
has lately been the subject of some very interesting observations by 
Messrs. Bornet and Thuret* and the Comte de Solms-Laubach?*. 
These observers have independently arrived at similar conclusions 
with regard to the mode of reproduction in Batrachospermum. The 
details cannot be given here, and, in fact, would be hardly intelli- 
gible without figures. The observations of Messrs. Bornet and 
Thuret are not confined to the genus Batrachospermum, but extend 
to a multitude of other Ploridee, and seem at last to have solved 
the problem as to the mode of sexual reproduction in that tribe of 
Alge. 

Hildenbrandtia is the only freshwater genus in the fourth family, 
the Hildenbrandtiacee. It has been the subject of some observa- 
tions by Mr. Carter in Seemann’s ‘Journal of Botany’ for 1864, 

, 225, 
: Lemanea, Bory, a singular genus, beautifully figured by Kutzing 
in his ‘ Phycologia Generalis’ (pl. 19), and Compsopogon of Mon- 
tagne, represented in Europe by a single species, Compsopogon Cort- 
naldii, Ktz, (Lemanea Corinaldii of Meneghini), compose the fifth 
and last family, the Lemaneacece, with which the work closes. 

It is hoped that enough has been said to give a sufficient idea of the 
nature of Dr. Rabenhorst’s work, and to show the important assistance 
it will render to all who are engaged in the study of freshwater Algze. 
The difficulty of making any entirely satisfactory classification of 
plants so little resembling one another as the different tribes of 
Algee is very great. In judging of any arrangement, it will always 
be necessary to bear in mind that (as Messrs, Bornet and Thuret 
have remarked) the name “ Algze” does not represent “ un ensem- 
ble nettement limité,” that it is, in reality, only a common name 
under which are comprised families belonging to different types, and 
which have often no other affinities than the absence of yascular 
tissue and the medium in which they grow. 

With these remarks, we can cordially recommend the work before 
us as an indispensable addition to the libraries of all algologists. 


Microscopic Objects figured and described. By Joun H. Martin, 
Secretary to the Maidstone and Mid-Kent Natural-History Society. 
No.1. London: John Van Voorst. 


We welcome with much satisfaction the appearance of this unpre- 
tending but most useful collection of drawings illustrative of the 
microscopic appearances presented by an extensive and well-selected 


* Ann. d. Se. Nat. sér. 5. vol. vii. p. 144. 
+ Bot. Zeit, May 1867, nos, 21 and 22, 


Bibliographical Notices. 139 


series of what we may call working specimens. The design of the 
author has been, as he tells us, to supply a want felt by many who 
possess a microscope—namely, a book in which they can find accu- 
rate delineations and explanations of the objects usually contained 
in their cabinets, or of such as are readily procurable by a beginner 
in microscopic research. The explanatory text indicates in a few 
words the main features of the organisms depicted, as well as the 
points of interest they are intended to exhibit, thus enabling the 
student who may be desirous of examining any particular tissue or 
peculiarity of structure to select at once the plant or animal in 
which it may be most easily and satisfactorily displayed; the tyro 
in microscopic research will in this manner find his exploration 
much facilitated ; and the amateur who prefers to obtain by purchase 
ready-mounted specimens, such as are now procurable in rich abun- 
dance, will be enabled not only to choose without any difficulty 
such slides as are adapted to his purpose, but (and this is by no 
means an unimportant consideration) to understand and explain to 
the uninitiated the lessons they are calculated to teach. The work, 
when complete, as we learn from the prospectus, will contain about 
200 original figures, which, judging from those in the part before us, 
are well and faithfully drawn ; the descriptions are concise, and 
the subjects sufficiently varied to constitute a very complete and 
comprehensive assortment, available alike for the instruction of the 
student of nature and for the amusement of intelligent though un- 
scientific observers, whose curiosity, being thus excited, will doubt- 
less prompt them to inquire more deeply concerning the functions 
and uses of structures so beautiful and so mysterious, 

After having thus expressed our conviction of the great utility of 
the plan of Mr, Martin’s work, and our hope that it may speedily 
find its way to the counter of every vendor of microscopic objects, 
we may be permitted to offer one or two suggestions, which will 
perhaps economize space in future numbers, without at all inter- 
fering with the instructive character of the descriptions, the value of 
which is much enhanced by their conciseness and simplicity. It 
appears to us to be superfluous to refer the specimens to the botanical 
orders to which they belong, as, for example, to tell us that the yeast- 
plant belongs to the Coniomycetous order of Fungi, while the maple- 
blight is referable to the Ascomycetous order: this kind of informa- 
tion is best obtained from the pages of Hooker, Smith, and Lindley ; 
and the employment of such hard words is not inviting to the gene- 
rality of readers. Another point to which we demur is the oft- 
repeated directions of the author that such-and-such specimens 
should be put up in liquid. We had hoped that this most unsatis- 
factory mode of mounting objects had become obsolete; at least, 
after forty years’ experience, we have utterly discarded it. The 
most delicate specimens may be put up in the solution of gum and 
glycerine as readily and as permanently as in Canada balsam; they 
show the minutest features with the utmost clearness, and are not, 
like those mounted in fluid, constant sources of chagrin and dis- 
appointment. 

LO* 


140 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


Upon the Mode of Formation of the Egg and the Embryonic Develop- 
ment of the Sacculine. By M. E. van Brenepen. 


In a note inserted in the ‘Comptes Rendus’ of the month of 
February last (February 22, 1869), M. Gerbe has given the results 
of his researches upon the constitution and development of the 
ovarian egg of the Sacculine. According to this avthor, the ovules 
are formed at their first appearance of two transparent cells closely 
applied to each other, each provided with a vesicular nucleus and a 
common membrane (vitelline membrane). One of these cells in- 
creases considerably, there are developed in it a large quantity of 
refractive globules ; whilst the other remains small and only acquires 
a few fine globules; and when the egg is mature, the large cell, in 
which the elements of the yolk are developed, has attained such a 
predominance that the other lobe, of which the development has 
remained in some sort stationary, only represents a small, scarcely 
perceptible eminence upon one of the poles of the ovule. M. Gerbe 
regards the large cell as giving origin to the vitellus, and com- 
pares it to the yolk of the egg of birds ; whilst the little cell, in his 
opinion, represents the germ or cicatricula. Moreover M. Gerbe 
thinks he finds in the development of the ovum of the Sacculine the 
explanation of the physiological part performed in the egg by that 
body which Von Wittich, Von Siebold, and V. Carus have described 
in the egg of several spiders, by the side of the vesicle of Pirkinje, 
and which M. Balbiani has observed in certain Myriopods. One of 
the two cell-nuclei of the primitive bilobed ovule of the Sacculinze 
would be the nucleus of the formative cell of the vitellus and the 
homologue of the vitelline nucleus of the egg of the spiders; the 
other would be the germinative nucleus or the nucleus of the germ- 
cell, the homologue of the germinal vesicle of the egg of the spiders 
and Myriopods. 

The observations which I have made upon the development of the 
ovarian egg of the Sacculine agree, in certain points, with those of 
the learned embryogenist of the College of France; but the inter- 
pretation which I have given to the facts is essentially different, 
which is due to the circumstance that, upon some points, I am not 
able to confirm the investigations of M. Gerbe, and that some im- 
portant facts have escaped his attention. 

The ovules are not, at their first appearance, formed of two cells 
closely applied to each other; they consist, at first, of a single cell, 
formed of a perfectly transparent viscous matter (protoplasm) hold- 
ing in suspension some globules which strongly refract the light, 
and of a vesicular nucleus, with very delicate outlines, measuring 
about half the diameter of the cell and provided with a single very 
refractive nuc'eolus. The diameter of this cell is about 0-06 millim. 
Along with these cells are seen others, which present an elongated 
form and are provided with two nuclei, without, however, mani- 
festing any tendency to the division of their bodies. Others, on the 


Miscellaneous. 141 


contrary, present at one of their poles a little bud, the size of which 
increases until it becomes equal to that of the maternal cell; one 
of the nuclei passes to the interior of the bud, and thenceforward 
we may recognize two cells, separated from each other by a circular 
constriction, which deepens gradually; the two daughter cells be- 
come individualized, but remain closely connected with each other. 
The two cells, therefore, are produced by division from a primitive 
mother cell. I have always found it impossible to distinguish any 
trace of cell-membrane about these young ovules. 

It is indispensable here to make two observations :—first, that these 
mother cells occur in great quantity in the ovaries immediately after 
oviposition, as may be seen from the fact that the ovisacs contain 
eges which are still at the first commencement of embryonic deve- 
lopment ; secondly, that the dimensions of the mother cells are the 
same as those of the little cells which are found in the form of. an 
eminence situated at one of the poles of the mature egg. All the 
other characters of the mother cells are identical with those which 
are presented by these polar cells of the mature eggs. In both we 
see a perfectly transparent protoplasmic body, holding in suspension 
some rounded, very refractive globules, and we even find some of 
considerable size, which present no difference in character from 
those of the vitellus. We distinguish in them a vesicular nucleus, 
with very delicate outlines, provided with a nucleolus endowed with 
considerable refractive power. 

The mother cells of which I have spoken give origin, by means 
of division, to two daughter cells. At the commencement of their 
development these cells are all exactly alike. Soon, however, their 
bulk increases slightly, and each of them acquires by degrees the 
dimensions of the mother cell. They each contain some refractive 
globules ; but soon the number of these globules increases greatly 
in one of the two united cells, and, at the same time, its size begins 
to exceed that of its congener. From this moment it becomes im- 
possible to distinguish, in the midst of these refractive globules, the 
nucleus of the enlarged cell. I have never afterwards succeeded in 
distinguishing in the mature egg the cell-nucleus in the midst of 
the vitelline mass. The cell increases more and more ; it completely 
fills itself with refractive globules, of which the size increases as 
quickly as the number. Whilst enlarging, this cell (which we may 
now call the egg, since we recognize distinctly in its contents the 
characters of a true vitellus) preserves a perfectly regular spheroidal 
form ; only at one of its poles the second cell, which has remained 
stationary in its development, is attached. When the egg has at- 
tained a diameter of from 0°16—0-18 millim. we distinctly recognize 
in it a cell-membrane, which is developed at the expense of the 
periphery of the protoplasm of the ovicell, and betrays itself by 
its dark outline. This membrane (vitelline membrane) is not a 
common envelope of the enlarged cell (which is the egg in course of 
development) and of the transparent cell joined to one of its poles ; 
it does not enclose this latter cell, but, on the contrary, its contour 
stops at the margin of the surface of attachment of the egg and the 


142 Miscellaneous. 


polar cell. When the egg has arrived at maturity, it presents a 
regular ellipsoidal form, and at one of its poles the polar cell is 
always found, retaining its hemispherical form and its original 
transparency and dimensions. This cell is outside the vitelline 
membrane, of which we can follow the perfectly regular dark out- 
line between the vitellus and the polar cell on a level with the sur- 
face of attachment; the vitellime membrane, however, is slightly 
depressed, and perhaps it is wanting, at the centre of this surface. 

Along with these mature eggs which bear near their poles a 
transparent cell, are others in which it is not possible to distinguish 
any polar cell, but which still present, at one part of their surface, a 
depression corresponding to the old surface of attachment; the ex- 
truded eggs never show the least trace of the polar cell, or anything 
which resembles a cicatricula, Considering this fact in conjunction 
with that of the existence in the ovary, a little time after oviposi- 
tion, of isolated cells, which [ have called mother cells, and which 
present all the characters of the polar cells of the mature eggs, we 
see that the polar cells of the mature eggs are not a constituent part 
of the egg, comparable to the cicatricula of the egg of birds ; these cells 
separate from the surface of the mature eggs, remain in the interior 
of the ovary, and increase in number by division to give birth to two 
daughter cells, which remain attached to each other, and of which one 
produces im its turn an egg. The body which M. Gerbe has re- 
garded as representing a vitelline cell, destined to form the nutritive 
elements of the vitellus, is in reality the entire egg; its nucleus re- 
presents the germinal vesicle; and its contents consist of a homo- 
geneous protoplasmic liquid, holding in suspension some refractive 
globules (nutritive elements of the vitellus). 

These observations suffice, it appears to me, to justify the con- 
clusion that I draw from them ; but I find in the analogies which 
the development of the eggs of the Sacculine present to those of a 
great number of other Crustacea, and in the development of the 
embryo of the Sacculine, the complete demonstration of the conclu- 
sion which has just been formulated. 

In a great number of parasitic Copepoda (Caligus, Clavella, Ler- 
nanthropus, Congericola) the ovary presents the form of an oval sac 
(germigene), of which the anterior extremity is prolonged into a 
tube (vitellogene) ; the latter gradually widens and opens exteriorly, 
after having formed in the interior of the body a certain number 
of convolutions. The germigene is filled by a very slender trans- 
parent band, twisted and coiled upon itself, which at the entrance 
of the gland is produced into the tube which represents the vitel- 
logene. This cord is really formed of an immense number of small 
perfectly transparent protoplasmic cells provided with a very small 
nucleus. They are flattened, and resemble little disks piled together. 
In the vitellogene each of these little cells increases in size, and 
becomes filled with refractive elements, to become an egg, at the 
same time that their nucleus becomes the germinal vesicle. The 
eggs retain this flattened discoidal form, and they are accumulated 
in the vitellogene like coins. In some other Lernzide (Anchorella, 


Miscellaneous. 143 


Lerneopoda) the division of the ovary into germigene and vitellogene 
does not exist; but this organ is formed of a ramified tube, of which 
all the branches are filled with fragments of protoplasmic cords, the 
characters of which are identical with those of the protoplasmic 
cords of Clavella and Congericola. If the walls of the ovary are torn, 
a great number of eggs are set at liberty, each of which bears at one 
of its poles a fragment of protoplasmic cord formed of piled-up dis- 
coidal cells. When the eggs have arrived at maturity they separate 
from the cord, are ejected, and it is the cell of the protoplasmic 
cord which was immediately adjacent to the egg that increases, 
becomes filled with refractive elements, and becomes in its turn an 
egg. Itis impossible not to recognize that these eggs, bearing at 
one of their poles a fragment of ovarian cord, are really the ana- 
logues of the eggs of the Sacculine provided with a polar cell. The 
polar cell represents anatomically and physiologically the fragment 
of the protoplasmic cord of Anchorella and Lerneopoda, which sepa- 
rates, like it, from the mature egg to furnish new eggs. 

In studying the first phases of the embryonic development of the 
Sacculine, J have ascertained that these animals present at first the 
complete segmentation of the vitellus. Now, as 1 have shown in a 
previous memoir, the complete segmentation of the vitellus only 
takes place when the whole mass of the nutritive elements occurs in 
suspension in the protoplasm of the ovicell, which excludes the 
idea of a cicatricula. A cicatricula exists when a great part of the 
nutritive elements is outside the protoplasm of the ovicell, as in 
birds. In this case these elements do not take part in the divi- 
sion of the ovicell, and the segmentation is partial ; it occurs at the 
expense of the cicatricula exclusively. But in the Sacculine the 
whole mass of the vitellus becomes divided into two equal portions, 
in consequence of the formation, all round the small section of the 
egg, of a furrow which starts from the periphery and advances gra- 
dually towards the centre. Soon afterwards a new furrow appears 
on the surface of the vitellus, crossing at a right angle that which 
had first appeared. The mass of the vitellus is thenceforward di- 
vided into four portions; they have each the form of a quarter of 
an ellipsoid which has been divided by two perpendicular planes 
both passing through the centre. From this moment in each of the 
four segments a separation takes place between the protoplasmic ele- 
ment and the nutritive elements of the vitellus. The protoplasm of the 
four segments, carrying with it their nuclei, moves to one of the po'es 
of the egg, which is the extremity of the diameter in which the two 
planes intersect. We see the four segments become more and more 
clear at this point, and free themselves completely from the nutri- 
tive elements, which are driven to the opposite poles. Then the 
clear parts, each provided with a nucleus, are separated by a furrow 
from the darker portion of the segment; they constitute the four 
first embryonic cells, in the form of little protoplasmic globes, each 
provided with a nucleus. The four large dark spheres, formed of 
very refractive elements, no longer represent cells; they will also 
become fused together, so as to form a single mass of nutritive ele- 


144 Miscellaneous. 


ments. The embryonic cells, on the contrary, multiply by division, 
to form a cellular zone of increasing extent, which finally, under 
the form of a cellular vesicle, will enclose the central mass of nutri- 
tive matter. From that time the blastoderm is formed. 

It results from this that the large cell, which M. Gerbe has re- 
garded as representing the body producing the vitellus, is really the 
entire egg,—that the egg of the Sacculine cannot be compared to 
the egg of birds, since it is impossible to distinguish in it any parts 
corresponding to the yolk and the cicatricula,—that the polar cell, 
which has been considered to represent the germ, is analogous to 
the protoplasmic cord of the egg of the Anchorelle,—and that this 
cell separates from the mature egg, and remains in the ovary to be- 
come divided there and give origin to new eggs. 

It is very evident, also, that no comparison can be established 
between the vitelline body of the eggs of some spiders, or of certain 
Myriopods, and the cell-nuclei of the double egg of the Sacculine. 
The vitelline body of the egg of the spiders, of which MM. von 
Wittich, von Siebold, and V.Carus have studied the constitution and 
the mode of formation, and of which M. Balbiani has proved the 
existence in the Myriopods, never presents the characters of a vesicle 
or of a cell-nucleus. This body, far from being general in all 
the animal series, does not exist in all the Araneida, nor even con- 
stantly in the same species of Myriopod, such as Geophilus simples : 
the signification of this accidental element of the egg remains still to 
be determined.—Comptes Rendus, tome Ixix. November 29, 1869, 
pp. 1146-1151. 


Food of Oceanic Animals. 


Dr. Wallich complains that I omitted to notice what he had pub- 
lished on the subject. I must confess that I overlooked it. 

In his ‘ North-Atlantic Sea-bed’ (p. 131), he says that it may be 
asked ‘under what other conditions than exceptional ones can 
marine animal life be maintained without the previous manifesta- 
tion of vegetable life, as must be the case if it exists at extreme 
depths ?”” and he answers this inquiry by submitting that “in the 
majority of the marine Protozoa, as, for instance, in the Foramini- 
fera, Polycystina, Acanthometre, Thalassicollide, and Spongide, the 
proof of these organisms being endowed with a power to convert 
inorganic elements for their own nutrition rests on the undisputed 
power which they possess of separating carbonate of lime or silica 
from waters holding these substances in solution.” But surely this 
is not a satisfactory answer to the inquiry. A limpet separates 
carbonate of lime from sea-water; but it cannot be assumed that 
this animal (which is well known to be a vegetable-eater) has also 
the power of converting other inorganic substances for its own 
nutrition. Foraminifera, as well as Amcebe, are usually considered 
animal-eaters, feeding by means of their pseudopodia or expansions 
of the sarcode. As regards sponges, we find, from Dr. Bowerbank’s 
Monograph (vol.i. p. 122), that, in the greater number, their nutri- 


Miscellaneous. 145 


ment “is probably molecules of both animal and vegetable bodies, 
either living or derived from decomposition,” and that “the faecal 
matters discharged by the oscula exhibit all the characteristics of 
having undergone a complete digestion.” 

If it be any satisfaction to Dr. Wallich, I assure him that my 
estimate of his memoir on the North-Atlantic Sea-bed remains un- 
changed. It is only to be regretted that the work is incomplete. 

J. Gwyn JEFFREYS. 

22 January, 1870. 


Note on the Habits of the Discophora. 
By the Rey. Tuomas Hincxs, B.A. 


In the Number of the ‘ Annals’ for October last, Dr. Gray reports 
an interesting observation on the habits of certain Medusz, which 
had been communicated to him by Mr. M‘Andrew. This gentleman 
had informed him that he had often seen the sea-jellies (Medusa 
cequorea, Forskal) “lying on their backs at the bottom of the beautiful 
clear water of the Red Sea, with the tentacles expanded like a 
flower.” Dr. Gray adds that he is not aware that this habit has 
been observed or recorded before. 

My object in writing is to point out that the same thing was 
noticed long ago by Mertens. He states (as quoted by Agassiz) 
that he had constantly found Medusee (Polyclonia Mertensic) in the 
lagoons of Ualan, ‘with their arms spread and turned upward, 
resting upon the ground.” As Agassiz adds that he himself had 
always seen the members of this genus “in the reverse position, the 
arms downward,” Mr. M‘Andrew’s testimony in support of the elder 
naturalist has a positive value. Probably when at rest the free 
zooids of the Discophora generally may assume the position described 
by Mertens, or at any rate those which are accustomed to seek their 
food at the bottom of the sea. 

Agassiz has studied another species (Polyclonia frondosa) on the 
Florida reefs, and states that it has the curious habit ‘of groping 
in the coral mud at the bottom of the water, where thousands upon 
thousands may be seen crowded together, almost as closely as they 
can be packed upon the bottom, at a depth of from six to ten feet. 
When disturbed, they do not rise, but crawl about like creeping 
animals, now and then only flapping their umbrella.” 


Note on the Occurrence of two Species of Crustacea not hitherto ob- 
served in Scotland. By M. Watson, M.D. 


When dredging, in the month of September, last year, along with 
some friends, off the north coast of the island of Mull, I had the 
good fortune to procure two species of Crustacea which, so far as I 
can ascertain, have not before been obtained on any part of the 
Scottish coast, although they would appear to be not uncommon on 
some parts of that of England. These are the angular crab (Gono- 
plax angulata) and the four-horned pea-crab (Pisa tetraodon) of Bell. 

The former was taken in Bloody Bay, at a depth of about twenty- 


146 Miscellaneous. 


five fathoms, in soft mud, along with a quantity of Virgularia and 
Pennatula. It proved, on examination, to be a young male, seem- 
ingly half-grown, as the claws had not as yet attained the size cha- 
racteristic of the adult. The nature of the ground from which the 
specimen was taken would seem to corroborate the statement of 
Cranch, as quoted by Bell, “that they live in the hardened mud, 
and that their habitations, at the extremities of which they live, are 
open at both ends.” The second species above mentioned was taken 
off the lighthouse situated on the north coast of Mull, on stony 
ground, at a depth of about fifteen fathoms, and seemed, from its 
small size, to be also an immature specimen. 

A third species was also obtained, which, though by no means so 
uncommon as the two preceding, seems worthy of mention. This is 
the spinous shrimp (Crangon spinosus, Bell), a specimen of which 
was taken at the entrance to Loch Sunart, ata depth of twelve or 
fourteen fathoms, and proved to be an adult of large size. 

No other specimens of either of these species were obtained, 
although the various localities were carefully dredged on several 
occasions during a month’s residence in that quarter; so that the 
different species would seem to be by no means abundant in that 
neighbourhood. 

As previously remarked, the two first-mentioned species do not 
seem to have been before observed on the Scottish coast, while the 
latter seems only to have been taken in Shetland. I have therefore 
thought that it might be of interest to mention their occurrence on 
the west coast, more especially at a time when so much attention is 
being directed to the elucidation of the laws governing the distribu- 
tion of different species of marine animals, 


Spatangus meridionalis, Risso. 


My friend Dr. Moérch of Copenhagen, who is now at Nice for his 
health, has just given me some information which may serve to de- 
cide the question whether the above-named species is the Spatanqus 
Raschi of Lovén or merely the S. purpureus of Miller, Dr. Morch 
says that at my request he has examined Risso’s collection, that he 
found among the unpublished drawings of that author a figure of S, 
meridionalis very like S. purpureus, and that in the collection were 
several specimens of the latter species with a label on which was 
written ‘“‘ Mon Spatangus meridionalis est le Sp. purpureus, Lam.” 

J. Gwyn JEFFREYS. 


Note on the Arrangement of the Pores or Afferent Orifices in 
Cliona celata, Grant. By M. Léon Vatrranr. 


In the month of October last I had the opportunity, thanks 
to the kindness of M. Lemaitre, of Cancale, of witnessing the 
dredging of the oyster-beds for the annual inspection. This cir- 
cumstance enabled me to observe in the living state that singular 
sponge which perforates the shells of certain Mollusca, the Cliona 


Miscellaneous. 147 


celata, which, since the time of Grant, has so often attracted the 
attention of naturalists. In studying these creatures, immersed in 
the water immediately after they were taken from the dredge, so as 
to approach as nearly as possible to the conditions of natural life, it 
appeared to me that we had hitherto described and interpreted in 
an incomplete manner the nature of the prolongations or papille 
which the Clione emit through the perforations of the oyster-shells, 
and the very perceptible although not very rapid movements of 
which have struck all those who have been able to examine these 
animals, 

The prolongations are of two sorts. Some (the only ones well seen 
by previous authors) are hemispherical, more rarely cylindrical, and 
perforated at their summit; at this point there is, in fact, a wide 
opening, which may attain as much as | millim. in diameter: it is 
the orifice of a canal traversing the whole papilla and communi- 
cating with the ducts which in this as in all the other sponges tra- 
verse the parenchyma in all directions. The prolongations of the 
second kind, which are much more numerous than the preceding, 
have an entirely different form, which may be compared to that of the 
rose of a watering-pot ; they are in the shape of a reversed truncated 
cone, so that on leaving the perforation they enlarge gradually, and 
terminate in a very elliptical convex surface; this is not widely 
perforated, but presents an elegant network of fibres anastomosing 
in all directions, which are formed of bundles of spicula covered 
with sarcode. The fine meshes of this net form so many apertures 
which open by short conduits into a central canal, situated, as in the 
prolongations previously described, in the centre of the papilla, and 
terminating in the same way in the general system of internal irri- 
gation. 

These second prolongations of the Clione were certainly seen by 
Grant; but he described them as being the transitory state of the 
papilla just before its opening widely. From my observations, re- 
peated and followed up long enough to allow me to present them 
with confidence, this is not the case: the surface of the perforated 
shell always presents side by side with papille of the first kind 
others constructed upon the second type ; and in individuals which 
I have preserved living and active for nearly twenty days, I was 
even able to demonstrate that, after taking them from the water 
(which is a certain means of causing the prolongations to be re- 
tracted), on replacing them in the aquaria after some time, the same 
perforations always give passage to papille of the same kind. We 
might imagine, considering the simplicity of the structure of these 
creatures, that in certain cases changes might take place ; but I have 
not observed any. 

We may conclude, from this arrangement, that, in Olona celata, 
whilst the papille with wide perforations are, as has long been 
ascertained, the oscula or efferent orifices of the current of water 
which continually traverses the parenchyma of the sponge, the pa- 
pillke of the second kind bear, collected upon their widened surface, 
the afferent orifices or pores. It is to be remarked that hitherto, 


148 Miscellaneous. 


whilst indicating the efferent apertures, no one appears to have 
thought of seeking the orifices of entrance, which, however, could 
not occur, as usual in the other sponges, upon the general external 
surface, as this, being immediately applied against the walls of the 
cavities which the Cliona inhabits, is not in contact with the am- 
bient fluid. If this exceptional arrangement of the pores exists 
likewise, as is probable, in the allied species, we may find in it an 
anatomical character for this genus, which has hitherto been founded 
exclusively upon the biological fact of its boring-faculty.— Comptes 
Rendus, January 3, 1870, tome Ixx. pp. 41-48. 


British Killer or Orca. By Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S. &e. 


The examination of the skulls in the British Museum shows that 
two species of Orca or Killer inhabit the English coast. 

1. The smaller has a broad beak, of nearly equal width for the 
greater part of its length. This is the skull figured by Cuvier in his 
work on fossil bones; and his figure has been copied by many authors. 
I propose to call this species Orca latirostris. 

2. Judging from the size of the skull and the length of the ske- 
leton in the British Museum, the other species must be considerably 
larger. The beak of the skull is elongated, and tapers nearly from 
the orbit to the front end, which is narrow and acute. I have dis- 
tinguished this species as Orca stenorhynchus. 


On the Antiquity of the Ass and Horse as Domestic Animals in 
Egypt. By M. F. Lenormanr. 


The author remarks upon a statement of Professor Owen’s, that 
neither the horse nor the ass was known in ancient Egypt—that is 
to say, up to the sixth dynasty, about 4000 years B.c. He says 
that the horse undoubtedly does not appear upon any monument of 
the ancient empire, or of the middle empire, including the twelfth 
and thirteenth dynasties. But when the monuments recommence 
under the eighteenth dynasty, about 1800 years B.c., the horse 
appears as an animal of habitual use in Egypt. 

The ass, on the other hand, appears upon the oldest Egyptian 
monuments. It is frequent in the tombs of the ancient empire at 
Gizeh, Sakkarah, and Abousir. As early as the fourth dynasty, 
asses were as numerous in Egypt as they are at present: the tomb of 
Schafra-Ankh at Gizeh represents its occupant as the possessor of 
760 asses; and those of other tombs boast of being the owners of 
thousands of asses. 

The author remarks further that, considering the intimate rela- 
tions existing between Egypt, Arabia Petraea, and Southern Pales- 
tine during the ancient empire, we may infer the absence of the 
horse in the latter countries at this period; and in support of this 
view he cites a painting from the tomb of Noumhotep at Beni- 
Hassan-el-Kadim, and also the evidence to be derived from the 
Book of Genesis, in which the horse is first mentioned in connexion 


Miscellaneous. 149 


with the establishment in Egypt of the family of Jacob, in the time 
of the later Shepherd Kings. This mention of the horse nearly co- 
incides, in point of time, with the most ancient notice of that 
animal on Egyptian monuments. The author thinks it possible that 
the introduction of the horse into Syria and Egypt was effected by 
the invaders from whom the Shepherd Kings were derived.— 
Comptes Rendus, tome lxix. December 13, 1869, pp. 1256-1258. 


Embryonic Development of Bothriocephalus proboscideus. 
By E. Meczntixow. 


M. Kolliker has already remarked that in Bothriocephalus pro- 
boscideus only a part of the contents of the ovum is employed in the 
formation of the embryo, and that the rest forms a layer of peri- 
pheral cells, the fate of which remained unknown to him. M. Knoch 
disputed the accuracy of this observation, but wrongly, as it now 
appears. M. Mecznikow describes the ova of this Cestoid worm as 
filled by an ovarian cell surrounded by a mass of granular vitellus. 
The cell undergoes total segmentation, whilst the vite!line mass 
takes no part in the formation of the embryo. From the cellular 
aggregation produced by segmentation, two cells, furnished with 
larger nuclei than the others, are soon seen to separate; they fix 
themselves at the two poles of the ovum, and only disappear at the 
close of the embryonic life. M. Mecznikow has seen ‘a perfectly 
similar arrangement in the ova of Tenia cucumerina. 

After the segmentation, the mass of embryonal cells acquires a 
rounded form, and the embryo divides into a central nucleus and a 
peripheral layer, the latter formed of very distinct cells. Whilst the 
nucleus forms the true larva of the Cestoid worm, with its hooklets, 
the layer of peripheral cells becomes converted into a delicate mem- 
brane, which finally loses its cellular structure and acquires the 
appearance of a homogeneous cuticular envelope. 

Although this envelope of the embryo never becomes covered with 
vibratile cilia, M. Mecznikow does not hesitate to compare it to 
the ciliated envelope of Bothriocephalus latus. In fact, the embryonic 
development of B. proboscideus shows that the embryonal envelope 
is the homologue of the amnios of the embryos of Insects and other 
Arthropoda. In this case the ciliated envelope of the larva of B. 
latus would be a sort of amnios persisting for a long time after 
hatching. But then we must extend this homology to the ciliated 
embryos of the Monostoma and of M. Desor’s Nemertean. To be 
consistent, we must even regard Pilidiwm as a sort of temporary 
envelope of its Nemertes, as an amnios which has attained a remark- 
able degree of independence.—Mélanges Biologiques tirés du Bulletin 
de l Acad. Imp. de St. Pétersb. tome vi. p. 717; Bibl. Univ. January 
15, 1870, Bull. Sct. p. 87. 


Note on a Station of a living Encrinus (Pentacrinus europeus) upon 
the Coasts of France. By M. Lacaze-Duruters, 


Since the investigations of Messrs. W. Thomson and Carpenter, 


150 Miscellaneous. 


it is well known that the form of the Comatule in the embryonic 
state is precisely that which has been regarded by naturalists, espe- 
cially palzontologists, as characteristic of one of the most remark- 
able groups of the Echinodermata, that of the Crinoids or Encri- 
nites. 

This discovery is of the highest importance, as well in a purely 
zoological point of view as in zoological philosophy ; for it shows 
once more how much better the affinities of animals will be defined 
when zoologists shall have taken comparative evolution and morpho- 
logy as their guides. 

The opinions of the English naturalists upon the relations of the 
Pentacrini and Comatule have been too well demonstrated by them 
for it to be necessary to adduce new proofs in its support ; therefore 
my desire is simply to make known a station, easy of access, where 
it is possible for any naturalists who may desire it to repeat one of 
the most remarkable observations in embryogeny and experimental 
zoology. 

The port of Roscoff, situated at the northern extremity of a broad 
tongue of land which projects northwards into the English Channel, 
between Morlaix and Saint-Pol-de-Léon on the east and the bay of 
Pouldu on the west, is surrounded by innumerable reefs, which be- 
come dry at low water, and permit the zoologist to make the most 
varied collections there; moreover the Gulf-stream, by bathing this 
coast, maintains in these parts a temperature eminently propitious 
to the development of animals. Lastly, to the north, a long granite 
band, running east and west (the isle of Bass), forms a breakwater 
against the waves of the high sea, and protects the channel which 
lies between it and Roscoff. In consequence of these conditions, 
the fauna is particularly rich at this part of the coast. 

For two years in succession (in 1868 and 1869) I have passed a 
part of the summer in making researches in this locality, one of the 
richest on our coasts. I shall return there again ; for it is my in- 
tention to make it known and to take it_as the type of the marine 
fauna of the coasts of France, for which I have already collected 
abundant and valuable materials. 

On descending from the churchyard of Roscoff, at low water, upon 
the beach, by going directly north, we see before us some large 
granite masses which, never being covered, form islets even at the 
highest tides. These are :—to the east and to the right of the ob- 
server, the two Bourguignons; to the left, or to the west, the isle 
Verte; and further towards the east, some rocks which become co- 
vered and uncovered, amongst which I may cite Meinanet and 
Rolas. Among all these reefs and in the channel the sea on re- 
tiring leaves broad and fine meadows of Zostere and sandy flats 
covered with stones, both inhabited by numerous species of animals ; 
by an excessive variety of simple and compound Ascidia, Bryozoa, 
Sertularia, Sponges (especially calcareous), Echinodermata, Synapte, 
LInucernarie, Caryophyllie, numerous Actinie, Planarie, Borlasie, 
naked and other Mollusca in great abundance, &e. &c., which well 
compensate the zoologist for the trouble of examining these shvres. 


Miscellaneous. 151 


The two zones which the seaweeds habitually oceupy, the one at 
the highest (/ucus vesiculosus, F. serratus), the other at the lowest 
(Laminaria) water, are clearly separated at Roscoff by Himanthalia 
lorea, which is employed in the country as manure, under the name 
of filet, in the culture of vegetables. The zone of the filets is unco- 
vered at the period of the syzygies ; but it is not entirely dry, except 
at the greatest tides, when the Zaminaric situated below it are like- 
wise accessible. All these particulars are necessary ; for it is impos- 
sible to form an idea of the difficulty of investigations among the 
rocks covered with filets, unless one has been in the midst of the long 
bundles of viscous lashes of the Himanthalia which conceal the 
ruggedness of the stones and slp away under the feet. Nothing is 
to be found among them; and their examination is not only exces- 
sively difficult, but actually dangerous, from the continual falls that 
one gets. 

In the Laminarian zone, investigation is at the same time easier 
and more fruitful ; but what is of importance in the very peculiar 
point of view now before us is the presence of Sargassum in this 
zone, and the curious fact that this seaweed sometimes abandons the 
deeps to ascend even to a considerable elevation, under circumstances 
which it is important to indicate. 

At the time of the lowest tides, the sea, in retiring, hollows out 
furrows in the sandy flats and in the marine meadows. The water 
which flows from the parts which have emerged forms in these fur- 
rows true rivulets, often of considerable size and rapidity. At the 
west of the isle Verte, and of the Bourguignons, these erosions are 
numerous ; and it is in the water which fills them that we see the 
Sargassum rise high up, and that we find abundance of Pentacrinus 
europeus. If at the time of the spring tides we go to these streams 
and detach large and tufted stalks of Sargassum, tearmg them up 
quite close to the bottom, and selecting the most branchy, we are nearly 
sure, in the months of July and August, and the beginning of 
September, to meet with Prnracrint, 

This search must be made as follows :— When plants of Sargassum 
are very much branched, the branchlets interlace and form a sort of 
bush, in the midst of which Antedon rosaceus particularly likes to 
introduce itself and reside. It must be added that the Ascidia, the 
Sponges, the Sertularia, and the Bryozoa are also so numerous there, 
that each plant of Sargassum would furnish a collection of itself. 
The Antedon is there sometimes in such abundance, that it colours 
the stems, by twisting its arms around them; and as it occurs there 
of all sizes, I thought the station a proper one for its develop- 
ment, and set to work to find its Pentacrinus. My expectations were 
soon realized, and I was able to collect, even on the beach, very fine 
examples. But it is more convenient to carry away stalks of Sar- 
gassum covered with Antedon, and to examine them by separating 
the small branches under the lens and in water. I have thus found 
Pentacrint of all ages. I have preserved them living for a long 
time ; and those of the largest size, after having moved about and 


152 Miscellaneous. 


acquired the very elegant forms which have obtained them their 
name, have been metamorphosed under my eyes. They quitted their 
peduncle, characteristic of the crinoid form, to become free and mix 
with the adult Antedons, in the midst of which it was impossible to 
recognize them. 

I believe, therefore, that, by following the preceding indications, 
all zoologists will be able to verify the observations of Messrs. 
W. Thomson and Carpenter. This has already been done by MM. 
Lemire and Myévre, who, after having worked along time under my 
directions in my laboratory, at the museum of the Sorbonne, went, 
by my advice, to Roscoff. 

M. Lemire, having quitted Roscoff only after the high tide at the 
beginning of October, could no longer find any Pentacrini at this 
period; even in September their number appeared to me to have 
diminished visibly, but we still found many Antedons. M. E. 
Grube, of Breslau, who joined us at the beginning of September, can 
confirm this. 

Hence we may suppose that it is chiefly in the warm season that 
we may be certain of finding living Encrinites in the place which I 
have indicated and of repeating the observations of the English 
authors. 

A last remark will explain the care here taken to indicate this 
station. In excursions in the environs of Roscoff—for example, to 
Kainon, a plateau of rocks situated to the south-east of Sainte Barbe, 
in the river of Saint-Pol-de-Léon, which is only uncovered at the 
greatest tides, to the north of T’hirzaouson, to the west of the Fort 
of Perharidi and of the Roche du Loup, I have never found the Pen- 
tacrinus ; and yet the Sargassum abounded in nearly all these places. 
The conditions combined in the sheltered rivulets behind the isle 
Verte are, therefore, doubtless those most favourable for oviposition 
and the development of the embryo. j 

It seemed to me useful to call the attention of naturalists to 
a locality where we are able to repeat an observation of this import- 
ance so easily ; moreover the Pentacrinus europeus, placed by the 
side of its Antedon rosaceus, 18 rare in museums, because naturalists, 
especially French naturalists, who have collected it, are, I believe, 
few in number; and I do not know that it has yet been indicated 
upon our coasts.—Comptes Rendus, tome lxix. December 13, 1869, 
pp. 1253-1256. 


Observations on the Salivary Glands in Myrmecophaga tamandua. 
By M. J. Cuarin. 


The author has discovered in this mammal a third pair of sub- 
maxillary glands, having, like the others, proper excretory ducts.— 
Comptes Rendus, November 15, 1869, tome lxix. p. 1017. 


THE ANNALS 


AND 


MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 


[FOURTH SERIES. } 


No. 27. MARCH 1870. 


XVI.—On the Myology of the Wombat (Phascolomys wom- 
bata) and the Tasmanian Devil (Sarcophilus ursinus). By 
ALEXANDER MACALISTER, Professor of Zoology and Di- 
rector of the Museum, University of Dublin *. 


THROUGH the kindness of Professor Haughton, I have recently 
had the opportunity of making, with his assistance, a careful 
dissection of the two above-named marsupials. They were 
both salted specimens, but in excellent preservation. The 
Wombat was 33 inches long, and was an adult female full- 
grown ; it had a young one in its pouch surrounded by shreds 
of a membrane, but of what nature could not be ascertained. 
The embryo was 1 inch and 2 lines in length. 

The Tasmanian Devil was about 27 inches long and in 
good condition ; it was also a female, but not fully grown, the 
hinder molar teeth were not cut. The muscles of the wombat 
were firm and red; those of the native Devil were softer and 
paler, but still distinct. The dense pig-like skin of the Wom- 
bat was with difficulty taken off, as the subjacent tissue was 
dense and firm. ‘The platysma and panniculus carnosus in 
both are weak and undefined. 

The trapezius of the Wombat arises from the occipital ridge, 
from the cervical spines and ligamentum nuche, and from the 
seven upper dorsal spines ; it stretches as an undivided mus- 
cular sheet to the spine of the scapula and the acromion pro- 
cess. The anterior fibres were not attached to the clavicle, 
but, gliding over it, replaced the clavicular deltoid, and were 
inserted into the deltoid crest of the humerus, overlying the 
great pectoral. There was no tendinous intersection over the 
line of the clavicle, although such a line often exists when 


* Communicated by the Author, having been read before the Royal 
Zoological Society of Ireland. 


Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 4. Vol. v. 11 


154 Prof. A. Macalister on the Myology of 


this muscle misses the clavicle—for instance, in Manis Dal- 
mannii, in which the arrangement is similar, but the muscle is 
crossed by an inscription at the line of the clavicle (Humphry); 
this is interesting, as Manis is a fossorial animal like the 
Wombat. In the Civet (Viverra civetia) this same arrange- 
ment exists, and an inscription is present {Devis) 5 and in the 
Agouti and Guinea-pig, Dog, Dingo, Badger, Lion, and many 
other animals a tendinous line marks the junction. In the 
Rhinoceros there is no tendinous inscription, nor in the Llama. 
Prof. Owen describes the anterior fibres of this muscle in 
Perameles as continued into the pectoralis major, which I sup- 
pose is a similar arrangement. The trapezius in Sarcophilus 
arises from the occipital crest and nuchal ligament and from 
the upper nine or ten dorsal vertebra; it is mserted into the . 
scapular spine, the upper border of the acromion, and to the 
outer fourth of the clavicle. The part of the muscle corre- 
sponding to the root of the spine of the scapula was weak and 
tendinous, and nearly divided the fleshy part into an upper 
and lower trapezius; however, a thin muscular margin near 
the spines of the vertebrae saved it from this division. In 
Macropus giganteus it arises from the ligamentum nuche and 
from the three lower cervical and six upper dorsal spines. It 
is situated similarly in Bennett’s Kangaroo, In the Opossum 
and Phalanger its occipital origin is much larger, and it ex- 
tends downwards along all the dorsal spines. The isertion in 
all is constant into the outer half of the clavicle, the acromion 
process, and the whole spine of the scapula; and in the Opos- 
sum it is attached to the upper part of the vertebral edge of 
the scapula, as well as to the spine. 
- Beneath the trapezius, the omo-atlantic stretches, in the 
Wombat, from the atlas and axis to the outer half of the sca- 
pular spine, and into the upper margin of the acromion pro- 
cess. In Sarcophilus its attachments were from the trans- 
verse process of the atlas and to the outer half of the spine of 
the scapula, and into the upper edge of the acromion process. 
In the Wallaby it arises from the three upper cervical vertebree, 
and is inserted into the anterior fourth of the scapular spine 
and into the whole length of the clavicle. In the Giant Kan- 
garoo it is attached to the transverse process of the atlas 
and axis, and is inserted as in the Wallaby. In the Opos- 
sum it arises from the atlas alone, and is inserted into the 
anterior fifth of the spine of the scapula. (For an account of 
the synonyms of this muscle, see the anatomy of Bradypus 
tridactylus, Ann. Nat. Hist. 1869, vol. iv. p. 52.) 

The rhomboideus is composed of three parts, but they are 
not separable in the Wombat ; it arises from the upper four or 


the Wombat and Tasmanian Devil. 155 


five dorsal spines, from all the cervical, and from the occipital 
bone below the last; it is inserted into the entire length of the 
vertebral margin of the scapula. In Sarcophilus its attach- 
ments are similar, but it is distinctly divisible into a rhom- 
boideus occipitalis (Murie and Mivart, occipito-scapularis of 
Wood) and a proper rhomboid made up of the fused major 
and minor. In both it is a thick muscle. It is faintly divisible 
in the Opossum (Meckel says, not) and Phalanger as in the 
native Devil, but less in the Macropus giganteus and Bennett’s 
Kangaroo: in these the muscle only extends to the three upper 
dorsal spines; in the Opossum and Phalanger, on the other 
hand, it extends down to the fifth and sixth dorsal spines. 

Serratus posticus, in the Wombat, is a large muscle arising 
tendinous from the whole series of dorsal spines except the 
last, and is inserted fleshy into all the ribs, forming a con- 
tinuous sheet, as in the Pig. In Sarcophilus the serratus 
passes from the upper half of the dorsal spines, and is inserted 
into the upper eight ribs. 

Serratus magnus, in the Wombat, is divided into two parts, 
the upper of which includes the levator scapule ; this portion 
is very weak, and its attachments are, as usual, from the lower 
four cervical vertebree and from the upper three ribs to the 
upper part of the scapular spine. The lower part arises from 
all the ribs from the fifth to the eleventh inclusive (there are 
fifteen ribs, as described by Waterhouse, ‘ Marsupialia,’ p. 280), 
and is inserted into the inferior angle of the scapula, at the 
subscapular side, and into a small part of the axillary margin. 
In Sarcophilus its attachments are similar, and the levator 
scapule is inseparable. In Macropus giganteus and the Wal- 
laby it arises from the transverse processes and ribs from the 
third cervical to the sixth dorsal vertebre continuously. In 
the Opossum the levator scapule arises from the transverse 
processes of all the cervical vertebre but the atlas, and is 
nearly inseparable from the serratus proper, which extends 
from the first to the eighth ribs (Meckel describes them as 
separate) ; and the muscles are similarly arranged in Pha- 
langista. 

The splenius in the Wombat is a continuous sheet, and not 
easily divided into the two parts, capitis and colli; it arises 
from the spines of the vertebrae forming the upper fifth of the 
dorsal region and from all those of the cervical vertebree below 
the axis; the fibres are inserted into the occipital bone and 
into the posterior aspect of the upper cervical transverse 
processes. In Sarcophilus the splenius passes from the four 
upper dorsal and six lower cervical spines to the transverse 
process of the atlas and the occipital bone. 

ies 


156 Prof. A. Macalister on the Myology of 


The complexus is very large in the Wombat, and is attached 
to the transverse processes of all the cervical vertebrae and the 
upper five dorsal vertebre ; its insertion is into the occipital 
bone, as usual, on each side of the mesial line. In Sarco- 
philus it is very large, and is intersected by several inscrip- 
tions. In the Macropus giganteus, the Phalanger, and Opos- 
sum, as well as in the Wallaby, it is similar in arrangement. 

The semispinalis colli, the ilio-costalis dorsalis, and colli, 
the recti capitis postici major and minor, the obliqui capitis, 
are all normal in all, the first three merely varying slightly in 
the number of their vertebral attachments. The intercostals, 
the levatores costarum, interspinales, intertransversales, lon- 
gissimus dorsi, and trachelo-mastoid are all normal, and in 
none of the marsupials presented any features of interest. 

The latissimus dorsi of the Wombat arises from the lower 
six ribs, from the spinous processes of the lower eleven dorsal 
vertebree, and from the lumbar aponeurosis. It has no con- 
nexion with the angle of the scapula, and is inserted in front 
of the teres major, and slightly connected with it, into the 
usual situation on the humerus. This muscle sends off the 
dorsi epitrochlear muscle, or omo-anconeus of Prof: Owen, 
which, arising directly from the tendon of the latissimus dorsi, 
is inserted into the inner side of the olecranon process. In 
Perameles, Professor Owen describes this muscle as having an 
accessory origin from the inferior angle of the scapula. In 
Sarcophilus its attachments are the same, and the dorsi epi- 
trochlear muscle is as in the Wombat. In the Opossum it 
arises from the seventh to the thirteenth dorsal vertebra, and 
from the lumbar vertebree, by a fascia, and, as remarked by 
Meckel, from none of the ribs; it is inserted into the usual 
ridge on the humerus. In the Phalanger the muscle similarly 
detaches a dorsi epitrochlear muscle; and the parts are similar 
in the Wallaby and the Giant Kangaroo. 

The pectoralis major in the Wombat arises from the sternum, 
from the sternal half of the clavicle, and from the upper six ribs, 
and is inserted into the pectoral ridge of the humerus ; a sepa- 
rate portion exists underneath, which extends from the manu- 
brium sterni and from the cartilage of the first rib to the head 
of the humerus, on a level above the last: these two portions 
are quite separate from each other; but I think they are only 
separate factors of the great pectoral. A similar band I found 
in the Badger, in which a fasciculus beneath the great pectoral 
passed from the top of the sternum to the greater tuberosity 
of the humerus : this seems to correspond to the third portion of 
the great pectoral in the Hare, Rabbit, Guinea-pig, and Agouti. 
In Sarcophilus the muscle passes from the clavicle, sternum, 


the Wombat and Tasmanian Devil. 157 


and upper five ribs to the pectoral ridge of the humerus, 
and is undivided. The muscle is large and single likewise in 
the Giant Kangaroo (Meckel describes it as bilaminar) and in 
Bennett’s Kangaroo. The Opossum and Phalanger displayed 
no sign of segmentation. 

The pectoralis minor of the Wombat is a small thin muscle 
which lies beneath the last named and inferior to the second 
slip of the greater pectoral just referred to; it arises from the 
mesosternum, and is inserted into the outer part of the greater 
tuberosity of the humerus, the coraco-humeral ligament, and 
into the coracoid process. In Sarcophilus it is attached to 
the head of the humerus and the shoulder-capsule, and, more 
slightly than in the Wombat, to the coracoid process ; and in 
this animal its origin is from the abdominal linea alba, lower 
ribs, and mesosternum. ‘This muscle is joined to the greater 
pectoral as a deep inseparable lamina in the Giant Kangaroo 
and in Macropus Bennettt’, or absent, according to Meckel 
and Prof. Haughton (Proc. R. I. A. 1866, p. 81). In the 
Phalanger and Opossum it is present and passes to the humeral 
head below the shoulder-capsule; it is similarly situated in 
the Bandicoot. 

The subclavius muscle exists under the form of a sterno- 
scapular band, arising fleshy from the first rib, and passing 
beneath the clavicle to be inserted into its outer sixth, into 
the upper border of the acromion process, and into the entire 
length of the upper margin of the scapular spine. This 
muscle did not resemble the arrangement described by Prof. 
Rolleston (Trans. Linn. Soc. vol. xxvi. p. 626). In the 
Wombat examined by him the muscle arose thick and fleshy 
from the first rib, and was inserted into the outer end of the 
clavicle and, by means of the fascia covering the supra- 
spinatus muscle, into the whole length of the spine of the 
scapula; before its insertion it was joined by a fine tendon 
from a delicate muscular belly arising from the sixth costal 
cartilage, and homologous with the muscular fasciculus in the 
crocodile which runs from the second sterno-costal cartilage to 
the sternum, in series with the external oblique and outer 
intercostals. As I was acquainted with Prof. Rolleston’s de- 
scription, when dissecting the animal I looked most carefully 
for this curious arrangement, but was disappointed; for I saw 
no sign of any prolongation from below attached to the sub- 
clavius. The insertion of the rectus abdominis was clear and 
tendinous into the first rib; and the only other muscle whose 
fibres could have run into it from below was the rectus tho- 
racis (vide infra) ; but there was no sign of any fusion in our 
specimen. Professor Rolleston’s specimen seems to have been 


158 Prof. A. Macalister on the Myology of 


a better-developed individual; but this union does not seem 
to be the invariable rule in Phascolomys. A union of the 
origin of the subclavius with the insertion of the rectus abdo- 
minis occurs in Orycteropus*; and in this animal also the 
muscle is a true sterno-scapularis, as also in the Poreupine. A 
sterno-scapular band exists in the Llama, Rhinoceros, Hippo- 

otamus, Axis, and other non-claviculate mammals ; but it is 
interesting, as bearing on the homologies of this muscle, that, 
except in afew rare cases as a human anomaly, it never coexists 
with the ordinary subclavius. 

In Sarcophilus the subclavius passes from the first rib- 
cartilage to the clavicle, but is not traceable further. In the 
Virginian Opossum it runs from the first sterno-costal cartilage 
to the outer third of the clavicle and the acromion process. 
In the Phalanger its insertion is still more extensive, and in 
Macropus giganteus and Bennettii its insertion extends for the 
outer two-thirds of the clavicle. In none of these latter is its 
sterno-scapular continuation marked. From the considerations 
given above, I think we can scarcely regard the sterno-scapular 
as any thing but a variety of the subclavius. 

The rectus thoracicus arises from the lower part of the 
sternum, as far as the summit of the mesosternum, by a thin 
aponeurosis, which becomes fleshy and is inserted into the 
second and third ribs external to their cartilages; no fibres 
arise from the sixth rib, nor are any inserted into the first. In 
Sarcophilus the insertion is prolonged into the four upper ribs 
from the sternum. This is the muscle which is considered by 
Professor Rolleston (and, I think, with some reason) serially 
continuous with the external oblique. I have called it rectus 
thoracicus temporarily, for want of a better name; but it is 
evidently not the same as the more superficial rectus thoracis, 
of ‘Turner. 

The pectoralis quartus in the Wombat and Sarcophilus covers 
the side of the chest below the fifth rib, and is inserted into 
the pectoral ridge of the humerus. In the Kangaroo and Wal- 
laby this muscle is very large and superficial, its lowest fibres 
blending with those of the panniculus carnosus, its hinder 
fibres with those of the latissimus dorsi, and its anterior ones 
with those of the great pectoral. It is smaller and more defi- 
nite in the Phalanger, and most distinct and separate in the 
Opossum. (For an account of the synonyms of this muscle, 
see the Anatomy of Bradypus tridactylus, Ann. Nat. Hist. 
July 1869.) Professor Owen regards this muscle as a dif- 
ferentiated portion of the great pectoral; and Prof. Humphry, 
who has added another new name to the eight by which this 

* Galton, Trans. Linn. Soe. vol. xxyi. p. 572. 


the Wombat and Tasmanian Deviil.. 159 


muscle is known (calling it brachio-lateralis), regards it as an 
intermediate piece of the great superficial external muscular 
sheet between the pectoralis major and the latissimus dorsi— 
a conclusion which, I think, is warranted from its position. 
It is most powerfully developed in swimming animals, such as 
the seal and the otter, in which its action is very definite and 
important. 

There was no lateral rectus thoracicus in any of the marsu- 
pials which I have dissected. The transversi thoracis, an- 
terior and posterior, are weakly developed in Sareophilus ; 
the latter is distinct, though small, in the Wombat; and the 
former is present and well marked in Macropus giganteus 
and Bennettit. 

The deltoid of the Wombat is divided into two parts : one of 
these (the clavicular) has been mentioned already in connexion 
with the trapezius. The scapular deltoid arises from the 
acromion process and scapular spine, and is attached to the 
deltoid crest on the humerus separate from the preceding ; 
this crest is prominently marked, although the deltoid is not 
very large. 

In the Tasmanian Devil the acromial deltoid is separate 
from the scapular, and the latter is a long narrow muscular 
band. There is no clavicular deltoid separate from the outer 
fibres of the acromial portion. An undivided clavicular and 
scapular deltoid occurs in the Giant Kangaroo and in Ma- 
cropus Bennettit, more extensive in origin in the former than 
in the latter. It is similarly attached in the Phalanger and 
Virginian Opossum. In Perameles Professor Owen describes 
an accessory slip arising from the middle of the inferior costa 
of the scapula below the infraspinatus, and inserted into the 
upper part of the deltoid-crest of the humerus. I did not see 
this interesting aberrant accessory fasciculus in any of the 
other marsupials examined. 

The supraspinatus is larger than the infraspinatus in the 
Wombat, the Phalanger, Perameles, Sarcophilus, and the 
Opossum ; in the Giant Kangaroo they are about equal, while 
in Beare s Kangaroo the infraspinatus is the larger. There 
are no points of importance relative to these muscles ; they 
are attached to the capsule of the shoulder, but none of these 
capsular muscles perforate it. The supraspinatus is often 
larger in other animals than the infraspinatus, as in the Lion, 
Agouti, Guinea-pig, Rabbit, Hare, Rat, Llama, &e. 

The teres minor is not distinct from the infraspinatus i in the 
Wombat or Sarcophilus, but a distinct fascial band takes its 
place; in the Wallaby it is present and separate; but in 
Macropus giganteus, Phalangista vulpina, Perameles lagotis, 


160 Prof. A. Macalister on the Myology of 


and Didelphys virginiana it is not at all separable from the 
infraspinatus. 

The subscapularis presents no feature of interest in the 
Wombat ; its two series of fibres are blended very perfectly. 
In Sarcophilus it is small, and scarcely covers two-thirds 
of the subscapular fossa. It is large in the Giant Kangaroo, 
proportionally still larger in Bennett’s Kangaroo, and mode- 
rate in the Phalanger, Opossum, and Bandicoot. ‘There is no 
subscapulo-humeral muscle in any of these marsupials sepa- 
rate from the subscapularis proper. 

The teres major is large in the Wombat, and is attached to 
the lower half of the axillary costa of the scapula; some fibres 
of the inner head of the triceps are continuous with its fibres 
of insertion. It is also well developed in the native ‘ Devil,” 
much smaller in the Opossum, Phalanger, Macropus giganteus 
and Bennettit. 

The coraco-brachialis is extremely small and rudimentary 
in the Wombat, consisting of a fleshy fascicle inserted imme- 
diately below the inner tuberosity of the humerus ; it is closely 
applied to the subscapularis and capsule of the shoulder ; and 
its origin, which is tendinous, is at first united to the tendon 
of the biceps. In Sarcophilus it arises by a tendinous flat 
band from the tip of the coracoid process, and is inserted 
into the neck of the humerus above the latissimus dorsi ten- 
don ; it is also closely applied to the surface of the subscapu- 
laris. In Macropus giganteus its origin is from the anterior 
border of the small coracoid process, in a line continuous for- 
wards from the origin of the omo-hyoid ; its insertion is similar 
to that above described, and is continuous with the upper 
fibres of the triceps internus. In Macropus ruficollis it is 
divided into two fascicles; but both these represent the short 
muscle of Mr. Wood. It is similar in its nature, but is small, 
short, and tendinous for two-thirds of its length, in the Opos- 
sum and Phalanger. 

The biceps in all the marsupials is a double muscle; and 
the division is easily seen, either in the origin or in the inser- 
tion, in all the instances which have come under my notice. 
In the Wombat the muscle has two distinct tendons of origin, 
one coracoidal and one glenoidal; from these, two bellies descend 
the arm, slightly fused but capable of easy separation upon 
tearing; the fibres of the coracoidal origin pass to be inserted 
into the radius at its tubercle, those of the glenoidal portion 
seek an ulnar insertion in front of the insertion of the bra- 
chialis anticus. In Sarcophilus two tendons of origin exist, 
united, however, by a thin membranous expansion; but on 
dividing this and gently pulling asunder the two main ten- 


the Wombat and Tasmanian Devil. 161 


dons, a division into coraco-radial and gleno-ulnar portions 
can be made without difficulty. In Macropus giganteus the 
portions are» distinct, and the gleno-ulnar muscle unites. at 
its insertion, as described by Prof. Owen, with the brachialis 
anticus; the same occurs in Macropus Bennetti’, in the 
Phalanger, and in the Opossum, in all of which the coraco- 
radial muscle is nearly double the size of the gleno-ulnar. 
Mr. Galton mentions that one individual of Macropus 
Bennettit had only a single head to its biceps; but this is, 
I think, an individual variety, as the four individuals of 
this group dissected in Dublin had two heads: but even in 
this case the duality of the muscle is shown by its double 
(radial and ulnar) insertion. Meckel describes the insertion of 
the gleno-ulnar muscle as separate from that of the brachialis 
anticus. In the specimen which I examined they were scarcely 
separable. ‘The connexion between the tendons in Sarco- 
philus might at first sight have led to their having been 
considered but one head; however, a closer examination at 
once decided the duality of the origin. ‘This union is interest- 
ing as bearing upon the important point suggested by Prof. 
Humphry, that, as the portion of the glenoid cavity from 
which the long head of the biceps arises is in reality coracoidal, 
so both heads of this muscle are truly coracoidean in their 
origin. Professor Owen (Anatomy of Vertebrates, vol. iii. 
p- 12) states that in Perameles the coracoidal head is suppressed, 
and also that the fleshy belly is inserted along with the bra- 
chialis internus into the ulna, while another portion seeks the 
radius—thus showing that, while the origin is single, the 
muscle in reality is double. Meckel only found one head for 
this muscle in Macropus giganteus. 

The brachialis anticus in the Wombat was as usual in its 
position and attachments, winding round the bone below and 
external to the deltoid-crest, lying in a deeply excavated sul- 
cus in the humerus; its insertion is behind the attachment of 
the gleno-ulnar muscle, and quite separate from it. Its posi- 
tion is similar in Sarcophilus, the Bandicoot, Opossum, Pha- 
langer, Bennett’s and Giant Kangaroo. 

The triceps longus is large, and occupies more than a third 
of the axillary margin of the scapula. It is equally well 
developed in the Tasmanian Devil, the Wallaby, the Giant 
Kangaroo, the Opossum, Bandicoot, and Phalanger. 

The lateral heads are united into one large humeral muscle, 
inseparable from each other, and with the usual course and 
attachments, in all the marsupials. The dorsi epitrochlear in 
all is quite separate from the true triceps, and seeks its usual 
insertion into the inner side of the olecranon. The relation of 


162 Prof. A. Macalister on the Myology of 


this dorsi epitrochlear to the sartorius I have elsewhere sug- 
gested ; «nd in the light of the modification of the last-named 
muscle in the sloth (Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. July 1869), in 
which the origin of the muscle is tendinous from Poupart’s 
ligament, and not from the bone, the homology is still more 
striking. 

A subanconeus, from the lower sixth of the humerus to the 
synovial membrane of the elbow-joint, is present in the 'T'as- 
manian Devil; but I have not found it in any of the others. 

The pronator radii teres in the Wombat is well developed, 
and passes from the inner condyle to the lower half of the 
radius. In Sarcophilus it is smaller, and is attached to the 
middle third of the radius. In the Opossum and Phalanger 
it resembles the last in disposition ; but in Macropus giganteus 
and Bennettiz it is inserted into the upper third of the radius. 
No coronoid slip was present in any of these marsupials. 

The pronator quadratus was very weak in the Wombat, 
and occupied the lower third of the forearm. In Sarcophilus 
it extends for one-half, but is very thin, and occupies very 
little of the surfaces of the radius and ulna, merely lying 
in the space intervening between the bones. In Macropus 
Bennettii and giganteus it extends for rather more than the 
lower four-fifths of the interosseous space ; it is similar in the 
Opossum as well as in the Phalanger and Perameles. 

The flexor carpi radialis in the Wombat passes from the 
inner condyle to the second metacarpal bone. In Sarco- 
philus it sends an additional slip to the trapezium. In J. 
Bennettii it is inserted into the same bone or into the meta- 
carpal bone of the thumb according to Prof. Haughton (P. R. 
I. A. 1866, p. 83). Its attachments are similar to those in the 
Wombat, in the Phalanger, Opossum, and Bandicoot. 

The palmaris longus in the Wombat arises as usual, and is 
inserted by a flat tendon into the palmar fascia ; it is present 
and similarly arranged in Perameles lagotis, Macropus gigan- 
teus and Bennettit?. The palmaris accessorius, the commonest 
anomaly of this muscle in human anatomy, exists along with 
the true palmaris longus in the Wombat; and, like a very 
common human variety of the muscle (figured in the ‘ Pro- 
ceedings of the Royal Irish Academy,’ vol. ix. pl. 8. fig. 2), 
it arises by a flat tendon from the inner condyle; this soon 
becomes fleshy, and ends in a tendon which, passing through 
a special groove in the annular ligament, is inserted into 
the pad in the palm of the hand. ‘This is the variety of 
the muscle existing in Sarcophilus, the Opossum, and Pha- 
langer. 

The flexor carpi ulnaris in the Wombat arises by two heads 


the Wombat and Tasmanian Devil. 163 


—one from the internal condyle, and one from the olecranon 
process ; this muscle is inserted into the fifth metacarpal bone. 
In Sarcophilus it is also bicipital, and is inserted into the 
pisiform bone, sending a slip (ulnaris quinti digiti) to the first 
phalanx of the little digit. This muscle is very large in the 
Opossum and Phalanger; it has no condylar origin in the 
Great Kangaroo and Wallaby. 

The flexor sublimis digitorum arises in the Wombat from 
the inner condyle, inseparable from the profundus; but its 
tendons are small and separate, and lie on the surface of the 
deep flexor tendons; they pass to the fingers, and are perfo- 
rated by the deep flexor; they terminate in the digital apo- 
neuroses at the base of the first phalanges. In Sarcophilus 
there are three portions in the flexor muscle, and the super- 
ficial of these is the flexor sublimis; the tendons of the sub- 
limis are arranged exactly as in the Wombat. In the Wallaby 
the sublimis arises from the inner condyle inseparably united 
to the profundus; but from the tendon of the common flexor 
above the wrist the fleshy fibres of the sublimis arise and form 
a lower belly, which sends tendons to all the fingers but the 
first. ‘This arrangement can be understood in the light of the 
digastric modification of the flexor sublimis found in Loris 
and described as an anomaly in human anatomy. The 
muscle is quite distinct in the Opossum, and has perforated 
tendons. 

The flexor profundus and flexor pollicis longus are more or 
less united in all. They are comparatively separate at their 
origin in Sarcophilus, but indivisible in the Wombat and 
Wallaby. The tendons in all are five, and pass to the five 
toes. 

The supinator longus is rudimentary in Sarcophilus, and 
is represented by a band of superficial muscular fibres arising 
from the fascia over the deltoid muscle, and very slightly from 
the supinator-ridge of the humerus inserted into the fascia over 
the thumb. In the Wombat it is also superficial and thin, 
fascial in origin mainly and in insertion exclusively. In the 
Macropus Bennettiz it is larger, and has a bony insertion into 
the metacarpal bone of the pollex. In the Giant Kangaroo 
it is purely bony in attachments, and is inserted into the 
trapezium and pollex. In the Opossum and Phalanger it is 
inserted into the trapezium and external lateral ligament of 
the wrist. 

The extensor carpi radialis is a single muscle in Macropus 
Bennetti7, the Wombat, Sarcophilus, Phalanger, and Giant Kan- 
garoo, and is inserted into the bones of the second and third 
metacarpals. In the Opossum it has a single tendon only. 


164 Prof. A. Macalister on the Myology of 


This possibly may be the muscle described by Professor Owen 
in Perameles as supinator longus, which ‘is inserted by one 
of its divisions into the base of one of the metacarpal bones of 
the index finger, and by the other into the adjoining metacarpal 
bone,” as this is similar to the arrangement of the extensor 
carpi radialis in I. Bennetti’, to which a separate supinator is 
superadded. 

The extensor digitorum communis arises from the outer 
condyle, and is inserted into the second, third, fourth, and fifth 
toes in the Wombat, Sarcophilus, Opossum, Phalangista, Wal- 
laby, and Giant Kangaroo. 

The extensor digitorum secundus (extensor minimi digiti 
of anthropotomy) is normal in origin and supplies tendons to 
the fourth and fifth toes in the Wombat, to the third, fourth, 
and fifth in Sarcophilus (and of these the latter two are double), 
to the third, fourth, and fifth in Bennett’s and the Giant 
Kangaroo, to the fourth and fifth in the Opossum and Pha- 
langer. 

The extensor carpi ulnaris has a double origin, from the 
ulna and outer condyle, and is inserted into the fifth meta- 
carpal, in the Wombat ; it has no ulnar origin in the Tasmanian 
Devil, Opossum, or Phalanger, but has one in Bennett’s and 
the Giant Kangaroos, as well as in Perameles. 

The anconeus externus of the Wombat is distinct and fan- 
shaped, and separate from the triceps. In the Devil it is 
united to the triceps, and extends down from the upper fifth 
of the ulna. It is distinct in the Opossum, Phalanger, Giant 
Kangaroo, and Macropus Bennettii. 

The anconeus internus is round and more distinct than the 
externus in all the marsupials, and, in all, crosses over the 
ulnar nerve. This muscle is even more distinct in the majo- 
rity of animals than the last. 

The extensor ossis metacarpi pollicis is large in all, and 
runs from the whole of the back of the ulna and interosseous 
membrane to the trapezium and metacarpal bone of the thumb; 
it crosses the extensor carpi radialis sautlon ; and in the Opos- 
sum and Phalanger it extends over the supinator longus tendon 
also. 

The extensor primi internodu is absent in all. The extensor 
secundi internodii in Sarcophilus and the Wombat passes from 
the lower third of the ulna to the last phalanx of the pollex ; 
it is present and similar in all the other marsupials, and also 
in the Monotremes Echidna hystrix and Ornithorhynchus 
paradoxus, in both of which the extensor ossis metacarpi 
pollicis and primi internodii pollicis are both absent. 

The extensor indicis is absent in the Wombat, but in 


the Wombat and Tasmanian Devil. 165 


Sarcophilus extends from the lower end of the ulna to the 
index, middle, and ring fingers, completing thus the third 
group of extensors for the digits. A small slip passes from it 
to the thumb, similar to the extensor pollicis et indicis of the 
Dog. 

The supinator brevis occupies the upper two-thirds of 
the radius in the Wombat, the upper third in Sarcophilus, the 
Wallaby and Giant Kangaroo, and the upper fourth in the 
Opossum; in allit has a condylar origin. In none of these does 
its insertion reach to such an extent as in Echidna hystrix, in 
which it oceupies the entire length of the radius, and balances 
the pronator radii teres. 

The abductor pollicis is very small in Phascolomys, is mo- 
derate in size in Sarcophilus, but, as a rule, small in the other 
marsupials, except in the Opossum—in which all the thumb- 
muscles are particularly well developed, an opponens pollicis 
being present in it, although suppressed in all the other mar- 
supials which I have dissected. 

The palmaris brevis in the Wombat is absent; but in the 
Tasmanian Devil a slip representing it arises from the pisiform 
bone, and is lost over the tendons of the flexor muscle of the 
digits. In no animal have I seen this muscle so curiously 
displaced as in Echidna hystrix; for in a fine specimen of this 
animal dissected by Professor Haughton and myself, Decem- 
ber 29, 1869, this muscle, or a small one like it, arose from 
the ulna for a quarter of an inch above its lower end, and was 
lost in the fascia over the tendons of the wrist. 

The lumbricales are four in number in the Wombat and 
Sarcophilus, one passing from the flexor tendon to the polliceal 
side of each digit; they are similarly arranged in Phalangista, 
Perameles, and Didelphys. 

The palmar interossei in the Wombat and Sarcophilus are 
four in number :—the first, or Henle’s interosseus primus vo- 
laris ; the second, to the ulnar side of the index ; the third, to the 
radial side of the annularis ; the fourth, to the radial side of the 
little finger. ‘The dorsal interossei are five in number :—first, 
abductor of the index, from the first and second metacarpal to 
the first phalanx of the index; second, from the second and 
third metacarpals to the middle finger; third, from the third and 
fourth to the middle finger ; fourth, from the fourth metacarpal 
to the ring-finger; and fifth, from the fifth metacarpal to the 
little finger; this last is extremely small in the Wombat— 
indeed, reduced to an excessively delicate thread. 

The external oblique arises, in the Wombat, Macropus, and 
Phalangista, from the eight lower ribs and lumbar fascia, and, 
passing inward, is inserted into the border of the ilium, into 


166 Prof. A. Macalister on the Myology of 


the outer border of the marsupial bone, and into the linea alba. 
From the iliac spine to the root of the marsupial bone there 
runs in the lower border of this muscle a tendinous band, at 
which the femoral fascia lata splits, and which arches over 
the femoral vessels: this evidently is the true Poupart’s liga- 
ment. <A similar arrangement exists in Sarcophilus; the 
external abdominal ring intervenes between the Poupart’s 
ligament and the marsupial bone. 

The pyramidalis arises from the inside of the marsupial 
bone, and is inserted into the median line for a considerable 
extent. The rectus in Sarcophilus and the Wombat arises 
from the pubis inside the marsupial bone, and is inserted into 
the cartilage of the first rib, but was not connected to the 
subclavius. In Sarcophilus it extends up to the summit of 
the sternum ; its inscriptions are clear and distinct. 

The transversalis and internal oblique muscles are normal 
in every respect. 

The fia eats lumborum is a wide triangular muscle in the 
Wombat, arising from the posterior third of the iliac crest and 
from the ilio-lumbar ligament, and is inserted into the trans- 
verse processes of the lumbar vertebrae and, by a few fibres, 
into the last rib. A small portion of it springs from the upper 
transverse processes and passes also to the last rib. 

The gluteus maximus in the Wombat is united to the agi- 
tator caude, and arises from the posterior margin of the crest 
of the ilium and lumbar fascia, and is inserted into the outer 
and back part of the great trochanter. In Sarcophilus its 
course is similar, but it is separate from the agitator caude 
and lies beneath it. In Macropus Bennettii it is divided 
into two—one anterior, from the front of the iliac crest, and 
one posterior, from its usual site of origin: they are with dif- 
ficulty separable; but the anterior is properly the tensor 
vagine femoris. ‘The same separation is present in the Giant 
Kangaroo ; and the posterior border is with difficulty separable 
from the agitator caude: they are still more closely fused in 
the Phalangista vulpina and also in Didelphys virginiana. 

The gluteus medius is with difficulty separated from the 
gluteus minimus, and is very large in the Wombat; it is 
smaller in Sarcophilus, and in both displays nothing un- 
usual in its attachments: they are quite separable in Ma- 
cropus giganteus and ruficollis, also in the Opossum, Phalanger, 
and Perameles. 

The agitator caude is separate from the external gluteus 
in Sarcophilus, and arises from the posterior border of the 
crest of the ilium by a very few fibres, also from the sacrum 
and three anterior caudal vertebree ; passing superficial to the 


the Wombat and Tasmanian Devil. 167 


gluteus medius, it is inserted into the femur at the posterior 
and external part of the great trochanter. In Macropus 
Bennettii it arises from the upper three caudal vertebree, and is 
closely united to the gluteus maximus. In the Giant Kangaroo, 
Phalangista, and Didelphys it is similar, but less easily sepa- 
rated from the gluteus maximus. 

The gluteus minimus is hardly separable from the medius 
in Sarcophilus, less so in the Wombat, but quite distinct in 
the Giant Kangaroo, Wallaby, Phalangista, Opossum, and 
Perameles. 

The gluteus quartus in the Wombat arises from the outer 
side of the anterior inferior spine of the ilium, external to the 
origin of the rectus, and is inserted into the front of the 
great trochanter. In Sarcophilus the attachments are similar, 
and the muscle is very distinct. In the Giant Kangaroo it 
arises below and in front of the gluteus minimus and behind 
the rectus femoris, and is inserted below the summit of the 
ereat trochanter ; it is flat and cleft into two parts in Macropus 
Bennettit, which are nearly equal; it is also present in the 
Phalanger, but small; it is more distinct in the Opossum. 

The pyriformis muscle is a slip separated from the gluteus 
medius by the gluteal nerve, and arises inside the pelvis 
from the front of the sacrum, and is inserted into the summit 
of the trochanter ; it is separate in the Wombat and Sarco- 
philus, but not nearly so large proportionally as in Macropus 
giganteus, ruficollis, or Bennettiv; it is small and distinct in 
the Opossum, but undistinguishable from the gluteus medius 
in Phalangista; it is larger and separable in the Bandicoot 
(Perameles lagotis). 

No obturator internus exists in the Wombat or Sarcophilus; 
but a large gemellus inferior is present in both, running from 
the tuber ischii to the digital fossa within the trochanter. In 
the Macropus giganteus and Bennettii the gemelli are also large, 
and extend into the pelvis, occupying all the space above the 
tuberosity of the ischium and below the obturator foramen, as 
far forward as the ascending ramus of the ischium: it is thus 
a rudimental obturator. This muscle is still smaller in the 
Phalanger, but more distinct, though small, in the Opossum. 

The obturator externus is very large and normal in Phasco- 
lomys and Sarcophilus, as well as in Macropus giganteus, the 
Wallaby, Phalanger, and Opossum. Meckel says there is no 
obturator internus or gemelli in the Kangaroo, but that they 
are present in the Opossum. 

The quadratus femoris is absent in the Wombat, and present 
only as a partially differentiated slip of the adductor magnus 
in Sarcophilus ; it is large and distinct in the Kangaroos, and 


168 Prof. A. Macalister on the Myology of 


forms a powerful “tie-beam”’ between the ischium and femur, on 
which latter is a special tubercle for its reception ; it is smaller 
in the Opossum and Phalanger, and thus seems to be specially 
developed in those marsupials with disproportional length of 
the fore and hind limbs. 

The iliacus internus, a large muscle, arises in the Wombat 
and Sarcophilus from the entire iliac fossa and anterior margin 
of the ilium; it is inserted into the ridge below the lesser 
trochanter. ‘There is no ilio-capsular in either of these mar- 
supials ; it is closely attached to the psoas, as is the case also 
in the Macropus Bennettii. Separation is more readily effected 
in the Macropus giganteus and Opossum, but not so freely in 
the phalanger or Perameles. 

The psoas parvus in the Wombat is a weak muscle, but has 
a strong tendon ; its origin extends over four vertebrae. It 
is rather stronger im Sarcophilus, but reaches its greatest 
development in the leaping kangaroos, being more than six 
times as large as the psoas magnus in the Giant Kangaroo, and 
twice as large as the psoadiliacus in the Wallaby ; it is only 
one-third as large in the Phalanger, and still smaller in the 
Opossum. Thus the disproportion is only associated with 
leaping, and not with the marsupial type of muscles. 

The psoas magnus in the Wombat arises from all the lumbar 
and from the last dorsal vertebrae, and is inserted along with 
the iliacus. In Sarcophilus its origin extends a vertebra 
higher; in the Giant Kangaroo it is attached to the lower two 
or three lumbar vertebree, as is also the case in Macropus 
Bennettti and Perameles lagotis. 

The coccygeus is small and distinct in both the Wombat 
and Sarcophilus, and is larger in Macropus giganteus and the 
Wallaby. 

The rectus femoris is a distinct muscle, as usual, with a 
single marginal origin from the anterior inferior spine of 
the ilium, in Sarcophilus, Wombat, Macropus giganteus and 
Bennettti, Phalangista vulpina, and Virginian Opossum. Pro- 
fessor Owen, however, describes this muscle in Perameles 
lagotis as having two origins which are very distinct from 
each other. 

The vastus externus is large in the Wombat, and is with 
difficulty separated from the vastus internus; it is even less 
distinct in the Sarcophilus, but in the Giant Kangaroo it 1s 
readily separable. In the Macropus Bennettit its origin receives 
an accessory fasciculus from the fascial insertion of the glu- 
teus maximus and tensor vagine femoris. 

The vastus internus in all is smaller than the externus, and 
can be separated even from the crureeus in Macropus Ben- 


the Wombat and Tasmanian Devil. 169 


nettid. In Macropus giganteus it is, however, inseparable 
from the crureus; but in Phalangista, Perameles, Didelphys, 
Sarcophilus and Phascolomys it is nearly inseparable from the 
externus. : 

The patella is mentioned as absent in the Wombat by Sir 
E. Home (Phil. Trans. vol. xevi. 1808, p. 304) ; in reality it 
is present, but cartilaginous. ; 

The popliteus in the Wombat and Sarcophilus is very large, 
but thin, arising from the upper third of the back of the fibula 
and inserted into the lower two-thirds of the back of the tibia, 
separate from the transverse tibio-fibular muscle to be here- 
after described. A few fibres of this muscle in Sarco- 
philus are attached to the sesamoid bone in the outer head of 
the gastrocnemius. This muscle is smaller in the Giant Kan- 
garoo, but in this and Macropus Bennettit its origin is purely 
sesamoid. 

The adductor longus arises, in the Wombat and Sarcophilus, 
from the crest of the pubis, and is inserted into the middle 
third of the femur. The adductor brevis and magnus are 
rarely separable in either Sarcophilus or Wombat. In the 
Giant Kangaroo the three are easily separable, as also in the 
Wallaby. ‘The adductor brevis is scarcely distinguishable from 
the adductor magnus an the Opossum, and less so in Pha- 
langista. ‘These muscles are always separate from the pecti- 
neus, internal and posterior to which they lie; the three por- 
tions are most distinct in the Opossum. 

The pectineus is a small muscle, but double in the Wombat; 
the inner part passes from the spine of the pubis and marsupial 
bone to the line leading from the lesser trochanter to the linea 
aspera; a second portion passes close to the insertion of the 
psoas and iliacus external to the last. This muscle is similarly 
double in Sarcophilus; it is single in the Giant Kangaroo, 
Opossum, and Phalanger, small and definite in each. The slip 
from the marsupial bone exists in all marsupials which have 
hitherto been dissected. 

The semimembranosus is fleshy for its whole extent in the 
Wombat and Sarcophilus, and has its normal course from the 
tuber ischii to the upper and inner part of the head of the 
tibia ; it is closely in contact with the adductor magnus in the 
Giant Kangaroo ; and in the Wallaby its origin extends farther 
forward than usual; it is closely connected to the semitendi- 
nosus in its origin in the Virginian Opossum, but separate in 
Phalangista vulpina and Perameles lagotis. 

The semitendinosus in both Sarcophilus and the Wombat 
is normal in its course, quite separate from its neighbours, and 


Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 4. Vol. v. 12 


170 Prof. A. Macalister on the Myology of 


with no tendinous inscription ; it is similar in the Phalanger, 
Opossum, Perameles, Giant Kangaroo, and J. rujicollis, in none 
of which is an inscription present. This appearance was care- 
fully searched for in all cases, but I could see no trace of it. 
(In an Otter dissected by me, Jan. 1870, not only was an in- 
scription well marked, but the muscle above it had two sepa- 
rate origins—one from the-caudal vertebree and the other from 
the ischium ; and these united exactly at the intersection and 
formed one belly.) 

The biceps in Sarcophilus arises from the tuber ischii and 
from the upper four caudal vertebra beneath the agitator 
caudz, and is inserted into the outside of the knee; in its 
caudal origin and fibular insertion it is similar to that of the 
agitator caude in Ornithorhynchus; but in this latter ani- 
mal a distinct biceps underlies, which has a purely ischiatic 
origin. The insertion is fibular in Sarcophilus; and the 
muscle is very similar in its position and attachments in 
Phascolomys. In the Wallaby its origin is connected to that 
of the semitendinosus ; its tendon extends down the leg into 
the fascia over the gastrocnemius. 

A fourth hamstring (bicipiti accessorius of Haughton) un- 
derlies the biceps in Sarcophilus, which stretches from the 
caudal vertebra to the fibula and fascia of the leg. This 
muscle is absent in the Wombat, in the Giant Kangaroo, Ben- 
nett’s Kangaroo, Phalanger, and Opossum; it is the longest 
muscle in the body of Sarcophilus, as is usually the case in 
animals in which it exists. Professor Owen describes it as 
present in the Kangaroo, and mentions that it is inserted with 
the biceps by two fasciculi into the outer condyle of the femur 
and the fascia over the gastrocnemius. 

The gracilis arises in the Wombat and Sarcophilus from the 
symphysis and descending ramus of the pubis, and is inserted 
into the inside of the knee-joint ; it is a strong muscle; it has 
an attachment to the marsupial bone in these as in all the 
other marsupials which I have examined. 

Thé sartorius in the Wombat, Phalangista, Macropus gigan- 
teus, Wallaby, and Dasyurus macrurus arises from the anterior 
superior spine of the ilium, and is inserted into the inner side 
of the patella. In Sarcophilus its origin is extended inward 
along Poupart’s ligament, as in Bradypus tridactylus. In 
Perameles it is nearly parallel to the rectus femoris. 

The tibialis anticus in the Wombat passes from the outer 
surface of the tibia to the entocuneiform bone; it is well 
marked and presents nothing unusual in its appearance in the 
Virginian Opossum or in the Phalanger. In the Giant Kan- 


the Wombat and Tasmanian Devil. 17!t 


garoo it is large, and its tendon is inserted into the base of the 
metatarsal bones of the two inner toes. ‘This segmentation is 
carried a step farther in Sarcophilus, and a portion of the 
anterior tibial muscle is separated and detaches a weak tendon 
to the second metatars«!. The tendon from the single muscle- 
belly goes to the two metatarsals in Macropus Bennettit; but 
the muscle is much smaller proportionally than in the Giant 
Kangaroo. The tendon is also double in Perameles lagotis, 
and is attached to the middle and inner cuneiform bones. 

The extensor digitorum longus arises from the fibula and 
from the front of the tibia, and is inserted into the four toes 
in the Wombat and Sarcophilus. In the Phalanger and Opos- 
sum its tendons are similarly disposed; but in Bennett’s and 
the Giant Kangaroo it is distributed only to the third and 
fourth toes by distinct tendons. 

The extensor brevis digitorum is present in all the marsu- 
pials which I have examined, and passes from the outer side 
of the tarsus to be inserted into the mner pair of toes, 

The extensor hallucis in Sarcophilus is small and ob- 
liquely placed between the tibialis anticus and the extensor 
digitorum ; it is inserted into the inner toe, together with the 
inner tendon of the short extensor. In the Wallaby it is in- 
serted into the inner pair of toes by fine tendons. In the 
Phalanger and the Opossum it is also inserted into two toes. 
The Wombat possesses this muscle; but it is very small, and 
goes only into one toe. 

The gastrocnemius externus in the Wombat, Giant Kangaroo, 
Sarcophilus, and Bennett’s Kangaroo arises from the sesamoid 
bone at the back of the external condyle of the femur, and is 
inserted into the tendo Achillis and by it into the back of the 
os calcis. In the Opossum the muscle arises from the outer 
condyle of the femur. 

The gastrocnemius internus is very separate in all from the 
external muscle; it arises from the inner condyle and joins 
the tendo Achillis, and is inserted in common with the last ; 
it is larger than the externus in the Wombat, but smaller in 
Sarcophilus. It has no sesamoid bone in any of the species 
examined. 

The soleus has a fibular small origin in the Wombat, 
but, as usual, has no tibial head. Sarcophilus has also a 
fibular soleus. The same is true in the Opossum and Pha- 
langer, the Wallaby and Giant Kangaroo. 

The plantaris in the Opossum and Perameles is small, but 
separate, passing from the outer condyle to the outer side of 
the heel; but no plantaris exists in the Wombat. A distinet 
small muscle in Sarcophilus passes from the back of the 

12* 


172 On the Myology of the Wombat and Tasmanian Devil. 


external lateral ligament and from the head of the fibula, and 
passes down to the internal side of the calcaneum and into the 
plantar fascia. 

The peronei in Sarcophilus are complex: the peroneus 
longus arises from the upper and anterior parts of the fibula, 
winds round the outer side of the calcaneum and the cuboid 
bone to be inserted into the first metatarsal. The peroneus 
brevis les anterior to the long muscle, and arises nearly as 
high up; its insertion is into the metatarsal bone of the little 
toe. Arising in common with it is the peroneus quinti digiti, 
which is inserted into the last phalanx of the outer toe. Still 
further forward are two other peroneal muscles, which arise 
from the lower four-sevenths of the fibula by a common fleshy 
belly, and, winding round the back of the outer malleolus, 
pass forward to be inserted, one into the extensor aponeurosis 
of the fourth, and one into the third toe. There are thus five 
peronei present in this animal. In the Giant Kangaroo four 
peronei are present—a peroneus longus, a peroneus brevis, 
quinti, and quarti digiti. The same series exists in the Wal- 
laby, Phalanger, and Opossum. In the Wombat the only 
muscles of this group present are the long and short peronei, 
with an accessory quinti tendon detached from the last for 
the first phalanx of the outer toe. 

The Monotremes Ornithorhynchus and Echidna possess 
three peronei also. 

The tibialis posticus arises in the Wombat from the back of 
the tibia, below the outer side of the head of the bone, and is 
inserted into the inner side of the scaphoid bone. In Sar- 
cophilus it arises from the back of the fibula and tibia, and is 
similarly attached in the Wallaby and Macropus maor. In 
the Opossum and Phalanger it is inserted into the base of the 
metatarsal bone of the hallux. 

The flexor digitorum longus in the Wombat passes from the 
back of the tibia and fibula, and is in reality a compound of 
two parts, the flexor digitorum and the flexor hallucis; from 
the one belly five tendons pass, one to each of the toes. In 
Macropus giganteus, M. Bennettii, Sarcophilus, the Opossum, 
and Phalanger these muscles are similarly fused. In the Vir- 
ginian Opossum a small slip, separate from this muscle and 
interposed between it and the tibialis posticus, passes to the 
metatarsal bone of the hallux, which may be a degraded flexor 
hallucis. 

Professor Owen describes in Dasyurus macrurus a muscle 
which arises from the upper half of the back of the fibula, and, 
passing round the inner malleolus, is inserted into the plantar 
fascia; this muscle he regards as a degraded plantaris. There 


Mr. R. Swinhoe on new Birds from China. 173 


was no muscle corresponding to this in Sarcophilus or in any 
of the other marsupials dissected. 

In both the Wombat: and 
Sarcophilus, as well as in Pha- 
langista and Perameles, there 
exists a transverse tibio-fibular 
muscle, homotypical with the pro- 
nator quadratus, quite separate 
from the prolonged popliteus, and © 
similar to the transverse muscle 
of the Alligator, Crocodile, Iguana, 
and other reptiles: the muscle 
was described by Professor Owen 
as an aborted flexor digitorum 
communis longus; but a careful 
study of its properties would 
scarcely confirm this view. When 
considered in relation to the peri- 
neo-caleanean muscle of human 
anatomy, its position with regard 
to the quadrate pronator seems to 
be definite. I append a sketch 
of this muscle as it exists in the 
Alligator, which is characteristic Hind leg of Alligator. 
of its relationship. . a, pronator quadratus. 

On the sole of the foot in the Devil and Wombat the follow- 
ing muscles are seen—abductor hallucis, abductor minim 
digiti, showing nothing peculiar; and behind the last there 
lies a small abductor ossis metatarsi minimi digiti, in Sar- 
cophilus. 

The plantar interossei are three in number, attached re- 
spectively to the second, third, and fourth toes, from the corre- 
sponding metatarsal bone. The dorsal interossei are abduc- 
tors of the first, second, and fourth digits, and have double 
origins. 


XVII.—Descriptions of three new Species of Birds from China. 
By Ropert SwinHoE, F.Z.8. 


Family Rallide. 
Porzana mandarina, sp. nov. 


Crown, hind neck, and upper parts deep brownish olive, 
ruddy on the forehead. Throat pure white. Eyebrow, the 
whole face, neck, and breast to the middle of the belly ferru- 


174 Mr. R. Swinhoe on three new Species 


ginous chestnut, mixed on the last with white. Belly, axil- 
laries, and under tail-coverts light black banded with white ; 
tibial feathers pure white. Quills and tail olive-brown, the 
outer feather of the former with its outer web white; feathers 
of the wing-coverts marked with narrow waves of white, with 
brown lower edgings. Bill olive-green, yellow at tip of lower 
mandible. Irides light brownish crimson. Legs ochreous 
yellow tinged with green; claws browner. 

Length about 9 inches; wing 5:1; tail 2°4, of eight soft, 
slightly graduated feathers; bill to gape 1:2, to forehead ‘9, 
depth at base *35; bare part of tibia °5; tarse 16; middle 
toe 1°6, its claw ‘3. 

The above description is taken from a male bird shot in 
spring, in company with a male Porzana fusca (Linn.), on the 
Canton River. 

It differs from P. ceylonica (Gmel.) of Southern India in 
wanting the rufous on the crown and hind neck, by the white 
marks on its wing-coverts, in having a white edge to its outer 
quill, by its white tibial feathers, and by the absence of white 
on the inner quills. 

Porzana euryzona (Temm.) of Singapore has white spots 
and bands on the wing-coverts and quills. The black belly- 
bands extend up to the breast. The crown and hind neck are 
red, and the bird generally is very rufescent and smaller. 
The British Museum has a third species from the Philippines, 
and a fourth from the Sula Islands. 


Family Parida. 
Genus Siva, Hodgson. 


Siva torqueola, sp. nov. 


Crown with broad longish feathers, greyish brown, each 
feather edged with bluish grey, and having a pale stem. 
From the base of the under mandible, under the eye, and round 
the nape runs a broad line of chestnut-brown, most of the 
feathers having a central white streak. Back, scapulars, and 
rump olive-brown, with shafts of most of the feathers of the 
two former whitish. Tail-coverts of a deeper hue. Under 
parts white tinged with bluish grey ; tibials deep olive-brown, 
the same colour of a lighter shade marking the ventral flanks, 
and more slightly, and in the form of obscure bars, the sides of 
the breast. Vent-feathers blackish brown, with shafts and 
broad tips of white. Axillaries white, with a brown and white 
barred carpal edge. Under edges of quills pale salmon-colour. 
Wing-feathers hair-brown, margined with reddish olive, the 


of Birds from China. 175 


three inner tertiaries having white shafts and margins. Tail 
deep hair-brown, the four outer rectrices being tipped with 
white increasing outwardly, and on the two outermost in- 
cluding the outer web. Bill light brown. Legs, toes, and 
claws brownish flesh-colour. 

Length about 5 inches; wing 2°7; tail 2°4; bill to gape 
‘55, breadth at base ‘22; tarse °66. The tarse is thick, and the 
hind toe and claw strong; the other claws are smaller, cul- 
trated, well curved, and sharp. 

Wing. The third quill, which is slightly longer than the 
fourth, is the longest in the wing; the first is -45 shorter, and 
the second ‘1 shorter than the third. 

Tail consists of twelve broad, greatly graduated feathers ; 
the fifth and sixth rectrices are nearly equal in length; the 
first is ‘72 shorter, the second *35, the third °2, the fourth -1. 

The two specimens from which this description is taken 
were obtained in the Tingchow Mountains, about 100 miles 
from Amoy (China). 


Family Brachypodide. 
Ixus Andersoni, sp. nov. 


Crown composed of rather long, soft feathers, black, which 
colour runs under the eye, and from the base of the bill forms 
a short moustache. At the base of the lower mandible occurs 
a minute blood-coloured spot. Upper parts light brown, very 
pale on the cheeks. Throat and under-neck white. A band 
of light brown about half an inch in depth crosses the breast. 
Tibials the same colour. Under parts cream-colour, tinged 
with brown on the flanks. Vent light orange or golden yel- 
low, a touch of the same appearing on the lower edge of the 
wing. Wing-feathers deep hair-brown, margined with light 
brown tinged with olive. Pail also dark hair-brown, narrowly 
tipped with white, which soon disappears from abrasion of the 
feathers. Bull and feet black. Iris deep brown. 

Length about 7 inches; wing 3:4; tail 3°75; bill to fore- 
head 53, to rictus ‘7; tarse ‘8. The sexes do not differ in 
colour or size. 

I found this species common about Ichang, 1000 miles up 
the river Yangtse (China). Dr. Anderson of Calcutta procured 
the same bird on the western borders of the province of Yun- 
nan, entering by the Burmese side. I saw his specimen in 
the collection he sent to England with Mr. Blanford; and as 
Dr. Anderson procured the species before myself, I feel in 
justice bound to dedicate it to him. 


176 M. E. Hiickel’s Prodromus of 


XVIII.—Prodromus of a System of the Calcareous Sponges. 
By Ernst HAcKEL f. 
Note.—J. = Johnston. Bb. = Bowerbank. O.8. = Oscar Schmidt. 


M.-M. = Miklucho-Maclay. H. = Hackel. An * before the name of a 
genus or species indicates that it is new. 


Legion CALCISPONGLA, Blainville. 


(Synonyms: Granta, Flenting ; Spongie calcaree, Bower- 
bank.) 
Sponges with a skeleton composed of carbonate of lime. 


Order I. MONOSYCA, H. 


Character. The mature calcareous sponge forms a single 
person with a single mouth-opening. (Body usually cylindrical, 
fusiform, or ovate, not branched. Stomachal cavity [inner 
cavity of the body] simple or chambered, always with a sim- 
ple mouth-opening placed opposite to the point of adhesion.) 


Family I. Prosycida, H. 


Character. The mature calcareous sponge forms a simple 
sac-like person, furnished with a single mouth-opening, the 
body-wall (stomachal wall) of which is quite solid, and not 
perforated. 


Genus 1. *Prosycum, nov. gen. 
Gen. char. Mouth-opening simple, without any peristomial 
crown (without a circlet of projecting spicules). Two species. 
1.*P. simplicissimum, H. Naples (H.). 
2.*P. primordiale, H. Naples (H.). 


Family II. Olynthida, H. 


Character. The mature calcareous sponge forms a simple 
sac-like person furnished with a single mouth-opening, and the 
body-wall (stomachal wall) of which is perforated only by 
simple cutaneous pores. (The cutaneous pores are simple in- 
terstices in the parenchyma, without any special lining.) 


Genus 2. *OLYNTHUS, nov. gen. 
Gen. char. Mouth-opening simple, without any peristomial 
crown (circlet of freely projecting spicules). Five species. 
3. *O. simplex, H. Naples (H.). 


+ Translated from the ‘ Jenaische Zeitschrift,’ Band v. pp. 236-254, by 
W.S. Dallas, F.L.S. 


a System of the Calcareous Sponges. 177 


4. O. guancha, H. (Guancha blanca, M.-M., var. 4). Lan- 
zarote (M.-M.). 

5.*O. cyathus, H. Gibraltar (H.). 

6. O. pocillum, H. (Sp. pocillum, Fab.). Greenland (Fab.), 
Norway. 


ig 
7.*0O. hispidus, H. WUeligoland (H.). 


Genus 3. *OLYNTHIUM, nov. gen. 


Gen. char. Mouth-opening with a peristomial crown (sur- 
rounded by a peculiar circlet of freely projecting spicules). 
Two species. 

8.* 0. nitidum, H. Algoa Bay. 

9. O. splendidum,H. Algoa Bay. 


Family III. Sycarida, H. 

Character. The mature calcareous sponge forms a simple 
sac-like person furnished with a single mouth-opening, and the 
stomachal wall of which is permeated by regular radial canals 
(radial tubes). (The radial tubes are lined with the vibratile 
entoderm, open at the distal end outwards through cuta- 
neous pores, and at the proximal end through stomachal pores 
into the stomachal cavity, and communicate with each other 
on all sides by conjunctive pores.) 


+ 


Genus 4. *AMPHORIDIUM, nov. gen. 


Gen. char. Skeleton consisting merely of simple (linear) 
spicules. One species. 


10. A. viride, H. (Ute viridis,O.8.).. Cette (O. S.). 


Genus 5. *AMPHORISCUS, nov. gen. 


Gen. char. Skeleton consisting entirely of quadriradiate 
spicules: Three species. 


11. A. chrysalis, H. (Ute chrysalis,O.8.). Lesina (O.S.). 
12.*A. urna, H. Caraccas (Gollmer). 
13.*A. cyathiscus, H. Australia. 


Genus 6. *SycariuM, nov. gen. 


Gen. char. Skeleton consisting of triradiate spicules in the 
walls of the radial canals, of quadriradiate spicules, the fourth 
ray of which projects freely into the stomachal cavity, in the 
wall of the stomach, and of simple, freely projecting, linear 
spicules at the distal ends of the radial canals. Mouth-open- 
ing simple, without thinly membranous rostrum or peristomial 
crown. Six species. | 


178 M. E. Hickel’s Prodromus of 


14. *S. ampulla, 1. Norway. 

15. *S. rhopalodes, H. Norway. 

16. S. compressum, H. (Grantia compressa, J., var. A). 
England; Norway. 

Ve is utriculus, H. (Ute utriculus, O.8., var. A). Green- 
and. 

18. *S.-villosum, H. Antilles. 

19. *S. vesica, H. Messina (H.). 


Genus 7. SYCONELLA, O. Schmidt. 


Gen. char. Skeleton of Sycartum. Mouth-opening pro- 
duced into a thinly membranous rostrum (a canal not per- 
forated by radial canals), and with no peristomial crown. 
Three species. 


20. 8. quadrangulata,O.S. Adriatic (O.8.). 
21.*S. proboscidea, H. Red Sea (Siemens). 
22. *S. tubulosa, H. Australia. 


_Genus 8. Sycum, Risso. 


Gen. char. Skeleton of Sycariwm. Mouth-opening with a 
simple peristomial crown (surrounded by a simple circlet of 
freely projecting spicules). Eighteen species. 


23. S. ciliatum, H. (Sp. ciliata, Fabr.). Greenland ; Brit- 
ish coasts. 

24. S. arcticum, H. (S. raphanus, var., O.S.). Greenland. 

25. S. coronatum, H. (Sp. coronata, Ellis). England, 
Weymouth (Max Schultze). 

26. S. giganteum, H. (Grantia ciliata, var., J.). Isle of 
Man; Britain. 

27. S. alopecurus, H. (Grantia ciliata, var., Bb.). 

28. S. tessellatum, H. (Grantia tessellata, Bb.). Channel 
Islands (Buckland). 

29. S. ananas, H. (Sp. ananas, Montagu). Britain. 

30. 8S. ovatum, H. (S. ciliatum, Lieberkiihn). Heligoland. 

31.*S. clavatum, H. Norway (Schilling). 

32. *S. lanceolatum, H. Norway (Schilling). 

33. *S. lingua, H. Norway (Schilling). 

_ 84. S. tergestinum (S. ciliatum, O.8.). Trieste. 

35. S. raphanus,O.S. Dalmatia (O.8.). 

36. 8S. capillosum,O.S. Sebenico (O.58.). 

37. 3S. setosum,O.8. Corfu (O.8.). 

38. S. Humboldtii, Risso. Nice; Venice. 

39. 8S. inflatum (Sp. inflata, Delle Chiaje). Naples (D.C.). 

40. S. petiolatum,O.S. Desterro (Fritz Miiller). 


a System of the Calcareous Sponges. 179 


Genus 9. DuNSTERVILLIA, Bowerbank. 


Gen. char. Skeleton of Sycartum. Mouth-opening with a 
double peristomial crown (surrounded by a double circlet of 
freely projecting spicules, an inner vertical and an outer hori- 
zontal one). Five species. 


41. D. elegans, Bb. Algoa Bay (Bb.). 
42. D. corcyrensis, O.S. Corfu (O. 8.). 
43.*D. Schmidtii, H. Lagosta (O.8.). 
44.*D. Lanzerote, H. Lanzarote (M.-M.). 
45.*D. formosa, H. Barbadoes. 


Genus 10. ArtyNas, Gray. 


Gen. char. Skeleton as in Sycarium. Mouth-opening 
simple, without either proboscis or peristomial crown. Sto- 
machal cavity chambered, traversed by irregular partitions. 
Four species. 


46. A. compressus, H. (Grantia compressa, J., var. B). 
Norway. 

47. A. utriculus, H. (Ute utriculus, O.8., var.). Green- 
land. 

48.*A. rhopalodes, H. Norway. 

49. *A. villosus, H. Antilles. 


Genus 11. Ure, O. Schmidt (p.p.). 


Gen. char. Skeleton consisting of triradiate spicules in the 
wall of the radial canals, of quadriradiate spicules, the fourth 
ray of which projects freely into the stomachal cavity, in the 
stomachal wall, and of simple linear spicules which lie parallel 
to the longitudinal axis of the body and, being packed closely 
together, form a firm external armour round the internal sys- 
tem of radial canals. Mouth-opening simple, without either 
proboscis or peristomial crown. ‘Two species. 


50. U. glabra,O.S8. Lagosta (O.8.). 
51. U. ensata, Gray (Grantia ensata, Bb.). Guernsey 
(Buckl.). 


Genus 12. *CYATHISCUS, nov. gen. 


Gen. char. Skeleton consisting of triradiate spicules in the 
radial partitions of the perigastric chambers, of quadriradiate 
spicules, the fourth ray of which projects freely into the sto- 
machal cavity, in the wall of the stomach, and of simple linear 
spicules which run parallel to the longitudinal axis of the. 
body and, being packed closely together, form a firm external 
armour round the internal system of radial chambers. (The 


180 M. E. Hiickel’s Prodromus of 


perigastric radial chambers, which surround the stomach in 
the same way as in the corals, are probably produced by the 
deficiency of the horizontal partitions which, in Sycar‘um, 
Sycum, &c., separate the superposed radial canals. Hach 
perigastric chamber opens by a longitudinal series of stoma- 
chal pores into the stomachal cavity, and outwardly by several 
longitudinal rows of cutaneous pores.) Mouth-opening sim- 
ple, without either proboscis or peristomial crown. One 
species. 
52.*C. actinia, H. Honolulu (Haltermann). 


Family IV. Dyssycida, H. 


Character. The mature calcareous sponge forms a simple 
sac-like person furnished with a single mouth-opening, and the 
stomachal wall of which is traversed by irregular ramified 
canals (parietal canals). (The parietal canals communicate 
repeatedly with each other, and open at the proximal end into 
the stomach by a few large stomachal pores, and at the distal 
end, outwardly, by very numerous small cutaneous pores.) 


Genus 13. *DyssycuM, nov. gen. 


Gen. char. Skeleton consisting of triradiate spicules in the 
body-wall, of quadriradiate spicules, the fourth ray of which 
projects freely into the stomachal cavity in the stomachal wall, 
and of simple, freely projecting spicules at the surface of the 
body. Mouth-opening simple, without either proboscis or 
peristomial crown. Five species. 


53. D. fistulosum, H. (Grantia fistulosa, J.). British coasts. 

54. D. penicillatum, H. (Sycinula penicillata, O. 8.). 
Greenland. 

55. D. clavigerum, H. (Sycinula clavigera, O.8.). Green- 
land (O.8.). 

56. D. solidum, H. (Grantia solida, var. solitaria, O.8.). 
Dalmatia (O. 8.). 

57.*D. periminum, H. Perim, Red Sea (Siemens). 


Genus 14. *DySSYCONELLA, nov. gen. 

Gen. char. Skeleton as in Dyssycum. Mouth-opening pro- 
duced into a proboscis (a thinly membranous tube not tra- 
versed by parietal canals), without a peristomial crown. Two 
species. 

58. D. pumila, H. (Leuconia pumila, Bb.). Guernsey 


(Norman). 
59.*D. caminus, H. Antilles. 


a System of the Calcareous Sponges. 181 
Genus 15. SycrnuLa, O. Schmidt. 


Gen. char. Skeleton as in Dyssycum. Mouth-opening sur- 
rounded by a peristomial crown (a simple circlet of freely 
projecting spicules). ‘Three species. 

60. S. aspera, O.8. Corfu; Dalmatia (O.S.). 

61. 8. Hgedii,O.8. Greenland. 

62. *S. echinata, H. Algoa Bay. 


Order II. POLYSYCA, H. 


Character. The mature calcareous sponge forms a stock 
with several mouth-openings. (Body more or less branched, 
with the branches free or repeatedly united and anastomosed, 
forming sometimes little shrubs or bushes, sometimes a densely 
interlaced root-work or a spongy mass. Stomachal cavities of 
the persons composing the stock communicating with each 
other directly or indirectly, with a separate mouth-opening at 
the free end of all or of several branches (persons).) 


Family V. Soleniscida, H. 


Character. The mature calcareous sponge forms a stock 
with developed persons, each of which possesses a mouth- 
opening, and the stomachal walls of which are traversed by 
simple cutaneous pores, as in the Olynthida. 


Genus 16. LEucoOsoLENIA, Bowerbank. 


Gen. char. Stomachal cavities and their communicating 
tubes simple, not chambered. Mouth-openings of the per- 
sons simple, without either proboscis or peristomial crown. 
Twenty-one species. 


Subgenus 1. Lewcalia. Spicules all simple (linear). (The outer 
parts of the spicules project beyond the outer surface.) 


63. *L. coralloides, H., and 
64. *L. troglodytes, H. Naples (H.). 


Subgenus 2. Leucelia. Spicules all triradiate. (Inner and 
outer surfaces of the tubes smooth.) 


65.* 1. dictyoides, H. Australia. 

66. L. himantia, H. (Grantia botryoides, var. himantia,J.). 
British coasts (J.). 

67. L. complicata, H. (Sp. complicata, Montagu). British 
coasts (Mont.). 

68. L. guancha, H. (Guancha blanca, var. B, M.-M.) 
Lanzarote (M.-M.). 

69. L. pulchra,O.S. Dalmatia (O.8.). 


182 M. E. Hickel’s Prodromus of 


Subgenus 3. Leucaria. Spicules partly simple (linear), partly 
triradiate. (The outer parts of the simple spicules pro- 
ject beyond the outer surface.) 


70. *L. thamnoides, H. Norway. 
71. *Z. robusta, H. Naples (H.). 
72. L. Lieberkiihnii,O.8. Triest (O.8.). 
73. L. Fabricti,O.$. Greenland (O.5.). 


Subgenus 4. Leuceria. Spicules partly triradiate, partly 
quadriradiate. (The free ray of the quadriradiate spi- 
cules projects into the stomachal cavity.) 

74. L. botryoides, Bb. (Sp.botryotdes, Ellis). Britain (Bb.). 
75. *L. Grantii, H. British coasts. 

76.*L. Darwinti, H. British coasts. 

77.*L. Goethei, H. Naples (H.). 

78.*L. Lamarckii, H. Gibraltar (H.). 

79. *L. Gegenbaurt, H. Messina (H.). 


Subgenus 5. Leuctria. Spicules partly simple (linear), partly 
triradiate, and partly quadriradiate. (‘The free ray of the 
quadriradiate projects into the stomachal cavity, and the 
outer part of the simple spicules beyond the outer 
surface.) 


80. L. ameboides, H. (Grantia botryoides, Lieberkiihn). 
Heligoland. 

81.*Z. variabilis, H. Norway. 

82. L. contorta, Bb. British coasts (Bb.). 


Subgenus 6. Leucoria. Spicules partly simple (linear), partly 
biradiate (hook-shaped), partly triradiate, and partly 
quadriradiate. (The free ray of the quadriradiate spicules 
projects into the stomachal cavity ; the outer part of the 
simple and the outer limb of the hook-shaped spicules 
project beyond the outer surface.) 


83. *Z. echinoides, H. Gibraltar (H.). 


Genus 17. *SOLENISCUS, nov. gen. 


Gen. char. Stomachal cavities and their communicating 
tubes chambered, traversed by irregular partitions and divided 
by them into numerous communicating chambers, in which 
the embryos are developed (as in Clathrina). One species. 


84. *S. loculosus, H. Australia. 


Family VI. Tarromida, H. 
Character. 'The mature calcareous sponge forms a stock 


a System of the Calcareous Sponges. 183 


with repeatedly interlaced anastomosing branches, and with 
rudimentary retromorphosed persons, the rudimentary stoma- 
chal cavities of which open in groups through common mouth- 
apertures. : 


Genus 18. *T'arRus, nov. gen. 


Gen. char. Canals internally simple, smooth, with a plain 
entoderm, without papilla or internal partitions. Five species. 


85.* 7. densus, H. Australia. 

86. T. guancha, H. | eles blanca, var. D, M.-M.). 
Lanzarote (M.-M.). 

87. T. reticulatus, H. (Nardoa reticulatum, var., O. 8.). 
Dalmatia (O.8.). 

88. T. labyrinthus, H. (Nardoa labyrinthus, O.8.). Lesina 
(OlS3)2 

89. T. spongiosus, H. (Nardoa spongiosa, Koll.). Nice 
(Eberth). 


Genus 19. *TARROMA, nov. gen. 


Gen. char. Canal-walls internally villous, densely clothed 
with projecting papille (outgrowths of the entoderm). Three 
species. 


90. T. canariense, H. (Nardoa canartensis, M.-M.). Lanza- 
rote (M.-M.). 

91. T. rubrum, H. (Nardoa rubra, M.-M.). Lanzarote 
M.-M.). 

92. T. sulphureum, H. (Nardoa sulphurea, M.-M.). Lan- 
zarote (M.-M.). 


Genus 20. CLATHRINA, Gray. 


Gen. char. Canals chambered internally, ¢. e. broken up by 
irregular partitions (lamellar outgrowths of the entoderm) into 
numerous intercommunicating chambers, in which the embryos 
occur. ‘T'wo species. 


93. C. sulphurea, Gray (Grantia clathrus, O. 8.). Sebe- 
nico (O. 8.) 


94. *C, loculosa, TH. Australia. 


Family VII. Sycodendrida, H. 


Character. The mature calcareous sponge forms a stock 
with developed persons, each of which possesses a mouth- 
opening, and of which the stomachal walls are traversed by 
regular radial canals (radial tubes), as in the Sycarida. 


184 M. E. Hickel’s Prodromus of 


Genus 21. *SYCIDIUM, noy. gen. 

Gen. char. Mouth-openings simple, without proboscis and 
without peristomial crown. Stomachal cavities of the persons 
simple, not chambered. Skeleton as in Sycarium. ‘Two 
species. 

95. S. gelatinosum, H. (Alcyoncellum gelatinosum, Blainv.). 

Habitat ? (Quoy & Gaimard). 
96.*S. compressum, H. (Grantia compressa, J., var. C). 
British coasts; Norway. 


Genus 22. *SYCODENDRUM, noy. gen. 

Gen. char. Mouth-openings without proboscis, with a peri- 
stomial crown (surrounded by a circlet of freely projecting 
spicules). Stomachal cavities of the persons simple, not 
chambered. Two species. 


97.*S. ramosum, H. Heligoland (H.). 
98. *S. procumbens, H. Australia. 


Genus 23. *ARTYNIUM, nov. gen. 

Gen. char. Mouth-openings simple, without proboscis or 
peristomial crown. Stomachal cavities of the persons cham- 
bered, traversed by irregular partitions. Skeleton as in Syca- 
rium. One species. 


99. A. compressum, Gray (Grantia compressa, J., var. D). 
Norway. 


Genus 24. APHROCERAS, Gray. 

Gen. char. Mouth-openings simple, without proboscis and 
without peristomial crown. Stomachal cavities of the persons 
chambered, traversed by irregular partitions. Skeleton con- 
sisting of simple fusiform spicules, which run parallel to the 
longitudinal axes of the persons and of the branched stem, 
and, being closely packed together, form a firm external 
armour round the internal system of radial canals (?). One 
species. 


100. A. alcicornis, Gray. Hong Kong (Harland). 


Family VIII. Sycothamnida. 


Genus 25. *SYCOTHAMNUS, nov. gen. 
Gen. char. Persons of the stock separated, only connected 
by their peduncles. Mouth-openings simple, without pro- 
boscis or peristomial crown. Ohne species. 


101. *S. fruticosus, H. Red Sea (Siemens). 


a System of the Calcareous Sponges. 185 


Genus 26. Leuconra, Grant. - 


Gen. char. Persons of the stock united by the greater part 
of their body-wall;,only their stomachal cavities and mouth- 
openings separated. Mouth-openings simple, without pro- 
boscis or peristomial crown. Five species. 


102. L. nivea, Bb. (Sp. nivea, Grant). British coasts. 

103. L. Gosset, O.S. (Leucogypsia Grosset, Bb.). Channel 
Islands. 

104. L. stilifera,O. 5. Greenland. 

105. L. algoensis, H. (Leucogypsia algoensis, Bb.). Algoa 
Bay. 

106. L. solida, O.S. (Grantia solida, var. socialis, O. 8.). 
Dalmatia (O. 8.). 


Order III. CHNOSYCA, H. 


Character. The mature calcareous sponge forms a ceenobium 
(a stock composed of several persons with a single common 
mouth-opening). Body branched, with its branches every- 
where coalescent and anastomosing, and finally running to- 
gether into a single mouth-opening. (Rarely the persons also 
grow together externally to form a massy lump, as in Ceno- 
stomella.) 


Family LX. Nardopsida, H. 


Character. The mature calcareous sponge forms a stock 
with a single mouth-opening, the canal-walls of which are 
only traversed by simple cutaneous pores (as in the Olynthida 
and Soleniscida). 


Genus 27. Narpoa, O.58. 


Gen. char. Mouth-opening simple, not produced into a 
thinly membranous proboscis. ‘Two species. 
107. N. guancha, H. (Guancha blanca, var. c, M.-M.). 
Lanzarote, (M.-M.). 
108. N. lacunosa, O.S. (Grantia lacunosa, J.). British 
coasts. 


Genus 28. *NARDOPSIS, nov. gen. 


Gen. char. Mouth-opening produced into a long thinly 
membranous proboscis. 'T'wo species. 
109. *.N. gracilis, H. Australia. 
110. N. reticulum, O. 8. (Nardoa reticulum, O.8.).  Dal- 
matia, O. 8.) 


Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 4. Vol. v. 13 


186 M. E. Hiackel’s Prodromus of 


Family X. Cenostomida, H. 
Character. The mature calcareous sponge forms a stock 
with a single mouth-opening, the stomachal walls of which 
are traversed by irregularly branched canals. 


Genus 29. *CG@NOSTOMELLA, nov. gen. 


Gen. char. The persons of the stock are united into a single 
mass, the common mouth-opening of which is produced into a 
thinly membranous proboscis, whilst the stomachal cavities of 
the persons remain separated. One species. 


111. *C. caminus, H. Antilles. 


Order IV. CLISTOSYCA, H. 


Character. The mature calcareous sponge forms one person 
without a mouth-opening. (‘The body usually appears under 
the form of an ovate, spheroidal, or compressed bladder, the 
internal cavity of which communicates with the: surrounding 
water only by cutaneous pores or parietal canals, but by no 
large orifice (mouth) ; the mouth is closed up.) 


Family XI. Clistolynthida, H. 


Character. The mature calcareous sponge forms a person 
without a mouth-opening, the wall of which is traversed by 
simple cutaneous pores (as in the Olynthida). 


Genus 30. *CLISTOLYNTHUS, nov. gen. 
Gen. char. Stomachal cavity simple, without partitions. 
One species. 
112. *C. vesicula, H. Honolulu (Haltermann). 


Family XII. Sycocystida. 
Character. 'The mature calcareous sponge forms one person 


without a mouth-opening, the body-wall of which is traversed 
by regular radial canals (radial tubes) as in the Sycarida. 


Genus 31. *SycocystTIs, nov. gen. 


Gen. char. Stomachal cavity quite simple, without com- 
partments. Three species. 

113. * 89. oviformis, H. Heligoland (H.). 

114.*S. compressa, H. Norway. 

115. S. utriculus, H. (Ute utriculus,O.8.). Greenland. 


a System of the Calcareous Sponges. 187 


Genus 32. *ARTYNELLA, nov. gen. 


Gen. char. Stomachal cavity chambered, traversed by irre- 
gular partitions. ‘Phree species. 


116. *A. compressa, H. Norway. 

117. *A. rhopalodes, H. Norway. 

118. A. utriculus, H. (Ute utriculus, var.,O.8.). Green- 
land. 


Family XIII. Lipostomida, H. 


Character. The mature calcareous sponge forms one person 
without a mouth-opening, the body-wall of which is traversed 
by irregular branched canals (as in the Dyssycida). 


Genus 33. *LIPOSTOMELLA, nov. gen. 


Gen. char. Stomachal cavity quite simple, without com- 
partments. ‘'T'wo species. 


119. *Z. clausa, H. Mogador (H.). 
120.*Z. capsula, H. Algoa Bay (Poehl). 


Order V. COPHOSYCA, H. 


Character. The mature calcareous sponge forms a stock 
without a mouth-opening. (The body appears under the form 
either of a branching shrub or of a root-like network, in con- 
sequence of partial ramification, or, lastly, of a shapeless mass 
formed by the complete amalgamation of several persons. 
The stomachal cavities of the persons are always more or less 
separated, whilst their mouth-openings are obliterated.) 


Family XIV. Sycorrhizida, H. 
Character. The mature calcareous sponge forms a stock 
without mouth-openings, the canal-walls of which are tra- 
versed by simple cutaneous pores. 


Genus 34. *SYCORRHIZA, nov. gen. 

Gen. char. The mouthless stock forms a root-like network 
composed of communicating tubes, the inner wall of which is 
smooth (not villous), and their cavity simple (not chambered). 
Two species. 

121. #8. coriacea, H. (Leucosolenia coriacea, Bb.). British 


coasts. 
122.*8. corallorrhiza, H. Norway. 


Genus 35. *AULORRHIZA, nov. gen. 


Gen. char. The mouthless stock forms a root-like network 
13* 


188 M. E. Hickel’s Prodromus of 


composed of communicating tubes, the inner wall of which is 
villous (set with papille), and their cavity simple (not cham- 
bered). One species. 


123. *A. intestinalis, H. Mogador (H.). 


Genus 36. *AULOPLEGMA, nov. gen. 


Gen. char. The mouthless stock forms a root-like network, 
the ramifications of which are communicating tubes with a 
chambered cavity traversed by irregular partitions (outgrowths 
of the entoderm). One species. 


124. *.A. loculosum, H. Australia. 


Family XV. Sycophyllida, H. 


Character. 'The mature calcareous sponge forms a stock 
without mouth-opening, the stomachal walls of which are 
traversed by regular radial canals (radial tubes) as in the 
Sycodendrida. 


Genus 37. *SYCOPHYLLUM, nov. gen. 
Gen. char. Stomachal cavities simple, not chambered. 
Two species. 


125. * 8. lobatum, H. Norway. 
126.*S. compressum, H. Norway. 


Genus 38. *ARTYNOPHYLLUM, nov. gen. 


Gen. char. Stomachal cavities chambered, traversed by 
irregular partitions. One species. 


127.*A. compressum, H. Norway (H.). 


Family XVI. Sycolepida, H. 


Character. The mature calcareous sponge forms a stock 
without mouth-opening, the stomachal walls of which are 
traversed by irregular, ramified parietal canals (as in the 
Dyssycida). 

Genus 39. *SYCOLEPIS, nov. gen. 


Gen. char. The stock forms an expanded crust or a shape- 
less lump, in the parenchyma of which the simple (not cham- 
bered) stomachal cavities of the persons are scattered, only 
connected by the branched parietal canals and only opening 
outwards by the cutaneous pores. ‘Two species. 


128.* 8. incrustans, H. Norway (Schilling). 
129. *S. pulvinar, H. Indian Ocean (Schneehagen). 


a System of the Calcareous Sponges. 189 
Order VI. METROSYCA, H.. 


Character. The mature calcareous sponge forms a stock, the 
constituent ene persons or groups of persons of which ex- 
hibit the forms of different genera and even of different families 
of the Calcispongie. (Notwithstanding that the persons united 
upon one cormus are mature (¢. e. contain speres or embryos), 
and therefore capable of propagation, they present such diverse 
forms that, if isolated, we should regard them as belonging 
not merely to different species, but even to different genera 
and families.) 


Family XVII. Thecometrida, H. 


Character. The mature calcareous sponge forms a stock, 
the constituent persons of which represent the forms of dif- 
ferent genera, whilst their canal-walls are traversed by simple 
cutaneous pores (as in the Soleniscida). 


Genus 40. Guancua, M.-M. 


Gen. char, Canals of the stock simple, neither villous nor 

chambered internally. One species. 

130. G. blanca, M.-M. Lanzarote (M.-M.). (The stock in 
its most highly developed form bears united forms 
of four genera, namely :—1, Olynthus; 2, Leuco- 
solenia; 3, Tarrus ; 4, Nardoa.) 


Genus 41. * THECOMETRA, nov. gen. 


Gen. char. Canals of the stock chambered, internally tra- 

versed by irregular partitions. One species. 

131.*7. loculosa, H. Australia. (The stock in its most 
highly developed form bears united forms belonging 
to three genera, namely :—1, Soleniscus; 2, Cla- 
thrina; 3, Auloplegma.) 


Family XVIII. Sycometrida, H. 


Character. The mature calcareous sponge forms a stock, 
the constituent persons of which represent the forms of dif- 
ferent genera, whilst their canal-walls are traversed by regular 
radial canals (radial tubes), as in the Sycodendrida. 


Genus 42. *SYCOMETRA, nov. gen. 


Gen. char. Mouth-openings of the persons simple, without 
proboscis or peristomial crown. Skeleton as in Sycardum. 
One species. 


190 Prodromus of a System of the Calcareous Sponges. 


132.*S. compressa, H. Norway. (The stock, in its most 
highly developed form, bears united forms of eight 
genera, namely :—1, Sycarium; 2, Artynas; 3, Sy- 
cidium; 4, Asty ynium + 5, Sycoc ystis : 6, Arty ynella ; 

at Ty, OF ‘ycoph yllum s 8, Artynoph yllum.) 


Synoptical Table of the Families of Calcispongie, with especial 
reference to the conditions of individuality. 
Stomach-wall 
solid, without cutaneous pores 
I. Monosyca. and without parietal canals... 1. Prosycida. 


Calcareous sponge one } with simple cutaneous pores ... 2. Olynthida. 
person with one with regular, radial parietal 


mouth-opening. Calla Sint sees once ssisecusesswenes does 3. Sycarida. 
with irregular, branched parie- 
He CANALS eras. tonweeeoreeseertetts 4, Dyssycida. 


~ — 


with simple cutaneous pores 


(stock with developed per- 
| HONS) eeaeaetens ss seaaeten acasee 5. Soleniscida. 
II. Polysyca. with simple cutaneous pores 
Calcareous sponge a (stock with rudimentary per- 
stock with many 1 BONS) eas cadesay aes oneares odie: 6. Tarromida. 
mouth-openings. with regular, radial parietal 
Cammlaee So tieansceseegnaeteseotes 7. Sycodendrida. 
| with irregular, branched parietal 
\ CANBIS, Ttoavonseweyesecenet es ene 8. Sycothamnida. 


III. Coenosyca. 


Calcareous cl tape a 
stock with 
mouth-opening. 


with simple, cutaneous pores... 9. Nardopsida. 
with irregular, branched parie- 
hal CANIS font sorecesasvedocne des 10. Cenostomida. 


IV. Clistosyca. 
Calcareous sponge one 

person without a 

mouth-opening. 


with regular, radial parietal 
CANALS .......00.-ssesesereeverecs 12. Sycocystida. 


CANBIBI (anes ccovere sancacatone a 23 13. Lipostomida. 
with simple cutaneous pores ... 14. Sycorrhizida. 


VY. Cophosyca. 


{ with simple cutaneous pores ... 11. Clistolynthida. 
f with regular, radial parietal 

{ 

| 

\ 


Calcareous sponge a CANIS Sc. savssnccaneiencenaes 15. Sycophyllida. 
stock withoutmouth- with irregular, branched parietal 
opening. Canale! iilvisdssaccvasdovesessate 16. Sycolepida. 
VI. Metrosyca. 

Calcareous sponge . with simple cutaneous pores ... 17. Thecometrida, 
stock composed i with regular, radial parietal 
persons and stocks SOMAEIE cornea gimasigennivnrens sneanet 18. Sycometrida. 


of various species 
and genera. 


Synoptical Table of the Families of Calcispongiee, with especial 
reference to the conditions of canalization. 


I. Aporeuta. \ 


Stomach-wall solid, | One person with one mouth-open- 
without cutaneous f TS wince c-necctere SPA tien ie Par 1. Prosycida 


pores or parietal 
canals, 


On the Parasitism of Rhipiphorus paradoxus. 191 


( One person with one mouth-open- 
HEN case dea saacpoesiued meidechiiscsese 2. Olynthida. 

Persons developed, 

all with mouth- 


II. Microporeuta. dee om openings ......... 5. Soleniscida. 
Stomach-wallwith sim- are Persons rudimen- 
peneercisiins tary, many with- 
(interstices in the ers a out mouth-open- 


IN Pa econ scien 6. Tarromida. 
A stock with one mouth-opening 9. Nardopsida. 
A person without mouth-opening 11. Clistolynthida. 
A stock without mouth-opening... 14. Sycorrhizida. 
| A stock composed of persons and 


ple cutaneous pores | 


parenchyma), with- 
out parietal canals, 


(stocks of diverse genera ......... 17. Thecometrida. 
One person with one mouth-open- 
LINES sacle Matec sees etiesccete 3. Sycarida, 
Ill. Orthoporeuta. | 4 stock with many mouth-open- 
Stomach-wall with HOGS) sree sae re cores uanaeeanisaeen 7. Sycodendrida. 


A person without a mouth-opening 12. Sycocystida. 
A stock without mouth-openings . 15. Sycophyllida. 
A stock composed of persons and 

stocks of different genera....... .- 18. Sycometrida. 


straight, regular, ra- 
dial parietal canals. 


IV. Cladoporeuta. LI Pee eetee shot citron te ninvarrate weressostm ates 4, Dyssycida, 


Stomach-wall_ with WPS acter aat eaten seek cae ke 8. Sycothamnida. 


crooked, irregular, 4 A stock with one mouth-opening . 10, Cenostomida. 
branched _ parietal 


canals, 


{ 
| 
( 
One person with one mouth-open- 


MEA IRE spp senee dnadacactonnsintsbnmsosess 13. Lipostomida. 
| A stock without mouth-openings . 16. Sycolepida. 


XIX.—On the Parasitism of Rhipiphorus paradoxus. 
By T. ALGERNON CHapmaNn, M.D. 


I HAVE read Mr. Murray’s papers on the economy of Rhipi- 
phorus with much interest; and although he has not succeeded 
in converting me to his views of its life-history, he has added 
to our knowledge of its habits and raised anew an interest in 
the relations subsisting between the wasps and their parasites 
which will probably lead to observations in the coming season 
that will set at rest many of the points in dispute. 

In the meantime I think it very desirable to form as correct 
an hypothesis of the life of Rhipzphorus as our facts admit of, 
since an approximation to the truth is a most valuable guide 
in making further investigations, while, on the contrary, an 
erroneous theory may blind us to very obvious truths. 

I cannot better begin the remarks I desire to make than by 
rendering what appears to me to be but justice to the accuracy 
of the earliest record we have of the economy of Rhipiphorus, 
meagre and deficient in detail though this record is. The ob- 
servations of Mr. Denison, brought to our notice by Mr. Smith 
from the papers of the Ashmolean Society, appear to me to 


192, Dr. T. A. Chapman on the Parasitism 


give an accurate sketch of the life-history of Rhipiphorus, and 
to be in harmony with all the facts yet recorded both of RAi- 
piphorus itself and of other parasites whose similar habits 
render their history fairly available in explaining that of Rhi- 
ptphorus. The account there given is that Rhipiphorus “ de- 
posits its egg upon the grub of the wasp at the moment it 
assumes the pupa (7. e. spins or covers itself in the cell); as 
soon as the egg is hatched, it devours the grub of the wasp 
entirely, and itself assumes the pupa- and imago-form in the 
cell of the wasp.” 

The mode of oviposition here noted of Rhipiphorus is, I 
believe, that followed by it, although it will be seen that Iam 
here at issue not only with Mr. Murray, but also with Mr. 
Smith, with whom on all other points I agree. If Mr. Deni- 
son’s view (but for the slight disagreement noted, I should 
here, as I shall in the rest of these remarks, have said Mr. 
Smith’s view) of the history of Rhipiphorus is correct, the 
relation of Lhipiphorus to the wasp is, mutatis mutandis, pre- 
cisely the same as that of Chrysis bidentata to Odynerus spi- 
nipes. ‘The larva of Chrysts bidentata feeds on that of the 
solitary wasp, from whose cocoon emerges, not the wasp, but 
the Chrysis. Now in this instance the egg of the parasite is 
not laid until after the larva of the wasp has done feeding, 
and is spinning its cocoon. Before I ascertained this fact, I 
had formed the same theory as to the period of oviposition as 
Mr, Smith has done in the case of the RAtpiphorus, and made 
in consequence many a vain search for the egg of Chrysis bi- 
dentata beside the feeding larva of the Odynerus. The parent 
Chrysis has many more difficulties to overcome (what these 
are 1s not material to the present subject) in depositing her 
egos than the Lhipiphorus, to whom it must be as easy to 
deposit an egg beside a full-fed larva, during or just before 
spinning, as in an empty cell. There are other instances re- 
corded of parasites similarly depositing their eggs beside full- 
fed larve, none, that I know of, of an egg remaining dormant 
beside a feeding larva. Mr. Murray appears to interpret Mr. 
Smith’s view to be that the larva of Rhipiphorus hatches at 
the same time as that of the wasp, and then walks off to find 
a full-fed larva to eat. I quite agree with Mr. Murray’s com- 
ments on such a theory, but feel satisfied that Mr. Smith 
really meant that the egg lay dormant until its companion, 
the egg of the wasp, was a full-fed larva. 

The two eggs found by Mr. Murray in some cells of the 
wasp both appear to me to be undoubtedly eggs of the wasp. 
I think it extremely improbable that the egg of Rhipiphorus 


should be precisely the same as, however similar it may be to, 


of Rhipiphorus paradoxus. 193 


that of the wasp. I have found two eggs so situated in nests 
in which I could see no trace, unless this was one, of Rhipi- 
phorus. I have seen two young larve of similar size in the 
same cell; yet afterwards one of these must have disappeared, 
removed probably by the wasps, and not devoured by the 
other grub, whether that may have been a Rhipiphorus or not. 
I may mention an exaggerated, because abnormal, instance of 
more than one egg being in each cell. I had placed some 
pieces of wasp-comb with many wasps clustered about them 
in a box, and so made an artificial nest. After a period I 
found every otherwise unoccupied cell with two, three, or 
more eggs in it, several with as many as twenty. The cause 
of this I cannot explain. Whether I had so diminished the 
amount of comb that there were not sufficient cells for the 
queen to deposit her eggs, one in each, or whether I had de- 
stroyed the queen, and some of the workers had assumed 
queenly functions, which is said sometimes to occur, avd the 
latter had not the same accurate instincts as a true queen, I 
am unable to say. But whatever may have been in a morbid 
instance the cause of this multiplicity of eggs in the same 
cell may fairly be assumed to be a possible cause in a 
healthy nest. 

My argument, so far, is rather against the supposition that 
the Rhipiphorus-egg is laid in the cell with that of the wasp, 
on the theory of the latter being the prey of the former (Mr. 
Smith’s view). On Mr. Murray’s hypothesis, the ege of 
Rhipiphorus might be laid in a cell by itself; but, if laid in 
one with a wasp-egg also, we must suppose that the latter, 
either before or after it is hatched, is removed by the attendant 
wasps, or falls a prey to the young Rhipiphorus-larva. In 
either case it is a necessary result of the theory that the larva 
of Rhipiphorus should be found occupying a cell among the 
wasp-larve. No one has ever pretended to have found a 
Rhipiphorus-larva so situated, though it has often been looked 
for. I pass over as untenable Mr. Murray’s suggestion that 
some of his wasp-larve were Rhipiphori; I have myself 
searched in vain for such a larva in nests infested by Rhipi- 
phort. I shall leave Mr. Smith to show (which I know he 
has the means of doing) that a larva of Rhipiphorus so situated 
differs sufficiently from that of the wasp to be readily detected, 
though I think Mr. Stone’s remark, that “ the larva is a sin- 
gular-looking one,” would of itself sufficiently establish this, 
especially when we take into account the fact that he nowhere 
hints at any possibility of confounding it with that of the 
wasp. . 

The remaining difficulty in the way of supposing the larva 


194 Dr. T. A. Chapman on the Parasitism 


of Rhipiphorus to be reared in precisely the same way as 
those of the wasp, is the silken covering always found over 
the pupa of Rhipiphorus, just as over that of the wasp. I 
have never seen any difference between the silk covering a 
Lhipiphorus and that covering a wasp, though I have found 
it possible to guess the cell containing the beetle by the 
shining-through of the differently coloured inmate. It seems 
very probable, from what we know of the mimicry by guest- 
insects of their hosts, that its silk would closely resemble that 
of the wasp, did it spin silk at all. The only instances of 
beetles spinning any thing like silk, that I can call to mind, 
are Cionus and its allies, and the doubtful instances of Cocci- 
nella and Donacia. 

In discussing the difficulties raised by Mr. Murray in the 
way of Mr. Smith’s view of the economy of Rhipiphorus, I 
shall dismiss his objections to the supposition of the Rhipi- 
phorus-larva devouring several wasp-larvee, because I have no 
wish to defend such a theory, nor do I suppose that Mr. Smith 
has. . But the objections he raises to the hypothesis of its 
devouring only one larva, viz. the one in whose cell the egg 
of Rhipiphor us is laid when the larva has done feeding, and 
is spinning or about to spin, all appear to me to be invalid. 
He first asks Mr. Smith if a meal of one animal can suffice to 
nourish another into as great dimensions as the animal eaten. 
Mr. Murray here stretches his point a little. The Rhipiphorus 
is not of as great dimensions as the animal eaten, although it 
is very nearly so. It is little if at all nearer to the dimensions 
of the wasp than Chrysis bidentata is to the dimensions of its 
host Odynerus spinipes, of which I have sufficiently proved it 
eats but one larva. Or I might put this in a still stronger 
form: Chrysis neglecta, differently from C. bidentata, eats not 
the wasp-larva, but the store of pabulum laid up for the larva 
of the Odynerus. It might certainly, then, so far as store of 
nutriment goes, be as large as the wasp; yet it is smaller than 
Chrysis bidentata, whose food is the larva of the wasp. 

Mr. Stone found a “minute larva”’ grow to full size in 
forty-eight hours—on which Mr. Murray remarks that it is so 
opposed to every thing we know of the laws of development 
and assimilation that he cannot accept it. Now I am unable 
to give Mr. Murray any facts that will expand his faith in the 
laws of development and assimilation quite to the extent re- 
quired; but I am able to give him some that will so nearly do 
so, that he will, I doubt not, like myself, be prepared to be- 
lieve that Mr. Stone’s account is literally true. I may first 
say that probably Mr. Smith felt little difficulty in accepting 
Mr. Stone’s observations, as he must be accustomed to the 


of Rhipiphorus paradoxus. 195 


rapid feeding-up which occurs in so many Hymenoptera. I, 
on the other hand, was as much astonished at my own obser- 
vations on the Chrysides as Mr. Murray can be incredulous of 
the facts recordedsby Mr. Stone. The larva of Chrysis bi- 
dentata began to spin its cocoon in eleven days from the date 
of the egg-hatching. Chrysis neglecta took rather a shorter 
time. But in one instance in which I reared a larva of Chrysis 
ignita, and happened to know the date on which the ege was 
laid, I found, two days after that date, a ‘‘ minute larva”’ 
(+ inch long, about one-thirtieth of the full-grown larva in 
bulk), and in four more days the larva was full-fed. 

On Mr. Murray’s next point, as I have no fresh light to 
throw on it, I will merely remark that, as I read the recorded 
facts, the larvee that Mr. Stone found unemployed in eating 
wasp-larvee were not larve that had still some eating to do, 
but were those that had, as Mr. Murray expresses it, eaten up 
their man and retired from active life ; though not yet pupe, 
they were about to enter that state. All larve take a pro- 
longed rest at this stage of their existence. Mr. Murray, who 
will not allow that a larva can feed up in two days (not from 
the egg, but from a small size), surely does not ask us to sup- 
pose that the larva becomes a pupa the instant it has done 
feeding. Chrysis, which fed up in four days, remains before 
its change to pupa nearly ten months. Will he not allow 
Rhipiphorus a day or two? 

I do not see that the question of size has much bearing upon 
the question at issue. In the one view the large specimens 
are large because they have eaten a queen instead of a worker 
larva, in the other the wasps have fed them more plentifully 
because they were in queen-cells. Still, if the capacity of 
parasites for varying in size which Mr. Smith mentions be not 
called in by Mr. Murray to account for those in the queen- 
cells being able to assimilate a larger supply of nutriment 
than the others, he must give us some other hypothesis. The 
case is obviously not parallel to that of the wasps, where the 
larger insects are queens, the larger Rhipiphori differing only 
in size. So much has this difficulty been felt, that I have 
seen it somewhere advanced that the larger specimens are 
always females—making the case parallel with that of the 
wasps themselves, which Mr. Murray has proved not to be 
the case. Why, if difference of feeding can produce the result, 
Mr. Smith should be asserted to be carrying his argument to 
the extreme in supposing that the mere difference between 
eating a worker-grub and a queen-grub is sufficient to account 
for the greater dimensions of the one in the queen’s cell over 
the one in the worker’s cell, I cannot at all understand. A 


196 Dr. T. A. Chapman on the Parasitism 


queen-grub must bear as a meal much the same relation to a 
worker-grub that the pabulum offered by the wasps to a 
Rhipiphorus-larva, on the supposition that it is a queen-grub 
because it is in a queen-cell, does to that they would offer to 
it in a worker-cell, where they must suppose it to be a worker- 
rub. 
' As to the difficulties which Mr. Murray finds in the Rhipi- 
phorus beginning its repast at the head of its victim, he falls 
again into the error of supposing that Mr. Smith postulates 
that the larva of Rhipiphorus should perambulate in search of 
pabulum : this, however, only explains a part of his difficulty, 
as Mr. Stone’s observations and the requirements of the theory 
that I accept from Mr. Denison show that the Rhipiphorus- 
grub really does begin his attack at or near the head. Here 
I cannot help suggesting, in parenthesis, somewhat mis- 
chievously perhaps, for Mr. Smith’s consideration, that if the 
egg lies dormant during the feeding of the wasp-grub, it must 
remain so at the bottom of the cell; and then, of course, to the 
confusion of all parties, the attack of Lhipiphorus would 
“begin at the tail.” 
Mr. Murray clearly believes that he has here made a strong 
oint. He assumes, with apparently logical accuracy, that 
if the Rhipiphorus begins to devour its victim at the head, it 
necessarily last eats the tail, and must thus, when it has com- 
pleted its meal, have its head where its victim’s tail was. 
Part of this error arises, as I have said above, from the sup- 
position that the larva crawls about above the cells in search 
of a victim—a supposition that no one will object to my dis- 
missing as untrue. But were it true, it would not alter my 
position that the wasp-grub can be easily (and is) attacked 
first near its head, yet the parasite assume the proper position 
in the cell. Let it be clearly understood that the wasp-larva 
is not to be eaten downwards, segment by segment, as though 
it were acarrot. It is doubtless eaten just as the larva of 
Odynerus spinipes is by that of Chrysts bidentata, viz. its 
juices sucked out, at first partially, of course, leaving it flaccid, 
so that both larve might easily be arranged side by side in 
the cell, the tail sucker of the victim now probably relaxing 
its hold of the cell-wall; afterwards more thoroughly; and, if 
the parallel holds good, the victim is reduced to very small 
dimensions indeed before any thing like eating takes place. I 
have often seen a larva of Odynerus spinipes reduced to very 
small bulk without any trace of even a microscopic opening 
in the skin being discoverable. In this way there is no diffi- 
culty in understanding how the Rhipiphorus-larva is found, 
when full-fed, with its head to the mouth of the cell. It 


of Rhipiphorus paradoxus. 197 


shows also how the remains (corneous head) of the victim 
would be beside the head, if not in the jaws, of its devourer, 
and, it being remembered that the mouth of the cell is down- 
wards, might remain there after the Rhipiphorus had assumed 
the pupal state. But that a Coleopterous pupa should hold 
any thing in its jaws, whether previously held in the jaws of 
the larva or not, I can only, with Mr. Murray, regard as im- 
possible; and if Mr. Stone means this, he has clearly com- 
mitted some error. He uses the phrase “ retain in their grasp,” 
which, with perhaps a little forcing, may be supposed to mean 
the larval grasp, 7. e. the grasp of the now cast larva-skin. 
Or we may suppose that the remains of the wasp lying at the 
top of the cell fell, on its inversion for examination, between 
the pupa and the wall of the cell, looking just as if held there 
by the pupa. 

T must leave Mr. Smith to deal with the way in which Mr. 
Murray explains away Mr. Stone’s observations, only observing 
that, in my opinion, if Mr. Stone committed half the errors 
imputed to him by Mr. Murray, he must henceforth be re- 
garded as the most inaccurate observer on record. 

It remains to consider the new facts brought forward by 
Mr. Murray, and which appear to have first led him to adopt 
the guest-theory of the life-history of Rhipiphorus. These are 
the three instances in which he found a pupa of Rhipiphorus 
and one of the wasp in the same cell. ‘These are somewhat 
difficult to explain on either hypothesis, but they seem to me 
to be much less explicable on the guest-theory than on the pa- 
rasitic. Mr. Murray finds it very difficult to imagine a wasp- 
larva turning round in its cell; and, though I have not found 
wasp-larve such completely helpless sacks as he appears to 
regard them, [ agree that for a full-grown larva to turn round 
in its cell would be simply impossible. Yet, on the guest- 
theory, this must have occurred in two out of the three in- 
stances he mentions. And how the wasps could possibly feed 
the larva at the bottom of the cell, when the upper one was well 
grown, I cannot conceive. Mr. Murray has truly remarked 
that a full-fed wasp-larva, and equally therefore one of Rhipi- 
phorus, completely fills the cell it occupies. Now, in the three 
cases in question, if the larvee were fed by the wasps, why did 
one or the other not grow to its proper size, so as to fill the cell, 
and eject its companion ? or why did one not eat the other ?— 
an occurrence of which he elsewhere admits the probability, 
should a chance occur, which, on the guest-theory, must be 
but rarely. 

On the parasitic theory, we have only to suppose that, for 
some accidental reason, of which several might easily be 


198 Mr. F. Smith on the Parasitism 


imagined, the Rhipiphorus-larva ceased to feed before it had 
drained the juices of its victim to the point of death; the 
wasp-larva, being at a stage of its existence when it no longer 
eats, does not, of course, avenge itself. The struggles of the 
wasp-larva in these uneasy circumstances, and its semiflaccid 
condition, would easily account for, and render possible, its 
change of position in the two instances in which that had 
occurred. 

The difficulties which have surrounded the elucidation of 
the life-history of Rhipiphorus may all, I think, be traced to 
the very short interval that elapses between the laying of the 
ege and the arrival of the insect at the pupal state. They 
appear to assume the pupal state almost as soon as the sur- 
rounding wasp-grubs; yet the eggs were only laid when these 
latter were beginning to spin. This allows a very brief period 
during which they must be found, if these stages are to be 
observed. Mr. Murray has failed to do so, probably because 
he did not examine the nests until such a period had elapsed 
after the nests were taken. I also failed, because, when my 
opportunities were most abundant, I did not know what to 
look for. As a similar instance among the Chrysides, 1 may 
mention the egg of Chrysis neglecta, which I have never been 
able to find. I find young larve only, and have satisfied 
myself that the egg-state does not last as much as twenty-four 
hours. In the instance I have mentioned above of Chrysis 
agnita, the egg-state cannot have lasted so long. 


XX.—Ooneluding Observations on the Parasitism of Rhipi- 
phorus paradoxus. By FReperick SMITH, Assistant in 
the Zoological Department of the British Museum. 


WITH some degree of hesitation, I venture to reassert my 
belief in the views I put forth in reply to Mr. Murray’s first 
paper on the relations between wasps and Rhipiphori. Ihave 
some fear of being considered dogmatic, and of not duly 
weighing the arguments offered to my notice by my friend 
Mr. Andrew Murray. I must, however, confess myself to be 
unconverted by his arguments, and unable to arrive at the 
same conclusions that he does when commenting upon the 
various phenomena which were presented to him when exa- 
mining the comb of a wasps’ nest. It will perhaps be a matter 
of astonishment that he has failed in his endeavour to bring 
me round; and it is equally surprising, but at the same time 
consolatory, to fd Mr. Murray expressing the opinion that, 
should a larva of Rhipiphorus “ fall upon a larva of the wasp, 


of Rhipiphorus paradoxus. 199 


of course there is nothing to be surprised at m its eating it.” 
In this instance, at least, we most cordially agree. 

I will endeavour fairly, and I hope without bias, to answer 
the numerous questions offered for solution. I readily agree, 
then, in the instance in which Miss Ormerod observed two eggs 
in the same cell, one at the bottom, the other attached a little 
way within, that in all probability one was the egg of the 
wasp, the other that of the parasite; but I do not consider 
this to be necessarily so: I have myself found two, and, I 
believe, even as many as three, eggs in a cell, in autumnal 
nests—that is, at that period of the season when the nest is 
crowded with the three sexes ; and I am quite sure that such 
nests contained no Phipiphort. I never had the good fortune 
to find a nest infested by the parasite. 

Mr. Murray thinks it likely that I can inform him how the 
larva of the wasp comes out of the egg-shell. This term is 
scarcely applicable to the eggs either of wasps or bees: shell 
there is none; and the thin skin in which the contents are 
enclosed never appears to be cast off by the larva. At one end 
I have first observed, in the process of development, the gra- 
dual formation of a head, while the rest of the envelope I have 
believed to become the skin of the larva itself. Whether I am 
right in this or not, future investigation may decide; but I 
know that the late Mr. Newport, at one time, was of the same 
opinion. 

The first question I am asked to reply to is one that I 
am not prepared to answer; but whether the larva of the 
wasp is fed, after being hatched, before it reaches the bottom 
of the cell, or not, in no way affects the main question. But 
this question is put in juxtaposition with that of “‘ How about 
the young Rhipiphorus-larva? is that fed too?’ Now the 
inference is obvious—the egg of the wasp and that of the 
parasite are hatched at the same time. Mr. Stone has told us 
that in the instance in which he observed the larva of Rhipi- 
phorus feeding upon that of the wasp, it was of minute size 
(that is, recently hatched) ; and the wasp-larva at that time was 
full grown. <A question follows as to what the larva of the 
parasite is like. Mr. Stone has given a description of the 
larva amply sufficient to distinguish it from that of the wasp: 
he says it is “more deeply furrowed than any larva with 
which I am acquainted ;” it has also “a longitudinal furrow 
down the back.” To this I may add, as I have a larva before 
me, that it is divided into twelve segments, the apical one 
having an anal tubercle or style: I include the head in this 
number ; and therefore, if the anal tubercle were counted as a 
separate segment, it would increase the number to thirteen— 


200 Mr. F. Smith on the Parasitism 


the normal number. It is also furnished with six pairs of 
spiracles. 

Mr. Murray says the description is imperfect, since it is not 
stated whether the larva has feet or not— a not unimportant 
point when the question is whether the larva passes a nearly 
motionless life in one cell, or a roving one.”’ But there is no 
such question before us. It feeds upon a single larva in a 
closed cell, we are informed; there is no travelling about 
“like a Blondin,” neither is there any chance of its being 
“ oobbled up by the big wasp-grub.” 

It is stated that “we all know (that is, all entomologists 
know) how soon a larva freshly excluded from the egg shrivels 
up if its food is not at its mouth the moment it comes out.” 
Now Mr. Murray does not appear to be aware that some para- 
sitic larvee live for days, nay, even for weeks, until they are 
conveyed to, or by chance find, the nourishment suitable for 
their sustenance. The late Mr. George Newport, in his paper 
on the oil-beetle, has recorded the fact of larvee living without 
food for a considerable length of time. He writes, “I saw 
most of the larvee leave the egg as early as five o’clock in the 
morning. ‘They were confined in a tin box for several days ; 
after remaining ten or eleven days, many of them crept be- 
neath the lid.” He also mentions other larva that he kept 
nine days, but which were perfectly healthy and active, 
although they had not taken any nourishment. I have also 
kept Meloé-larvee for a fortnight in a perfectly active condition 
without food; also larve of Melittobia, a bee-parasite: the 
larvee of Monodontomerus, a parasite upon Anthophora, can 
exist for days without food; and I will just refer to one other 
parasitic larva, that of Stylops: these, when hatched, may 
be observed perfectly active days after their extrusion from 
the egg, without nourishment. 

I am asked if I “ think that a meal of one animal can suf- 
fice to nourish another into as great dimensions as the animal 
eaten.” I reply, first, that in the case before us the animals 
are not of the same dimensions; both are before me, and I 
see in the wasp a much more bulky insect than the Rhipiphorus. 
I am comparing a worker wasp with its parasite bred from a 
worker-cell; I have also a pupa from a cell of the queen wasp, 
and I challenge Mr. Murray to produce a specimen of a LAzpi- 
phorus as large as a queen wasp. What will Mr. Murray say 
when he compares the parasite of Anthophora (Meloé) with 
the bee itself? and yet its larva is said to feed upon the larva 
of the bee; some authors suppose it to feed upon the food 
stored up by the bee. Now it is clear that Me/oé, an insect 
full twice the size of Anthophora, is nourished upon the same 


of Rhipiphorus paradoxus. 201 


amount of food necessary for the bee, or it is nourished upon 
its larva. ‘If we look,” Mr. Murray observes, “at the little 
black deposit of digested débris at the bottom of the wasps’ 
cells, we find fragments indicating the consumption | of hun- 
dreds of insects not much smaller than themselves.” This 
statement is intended to prove the impossibility of Rhipi- 
phorus being nourished upon a single wasp-grub. In my 
opinion the fragments are merely fragments of portions of 
insects with which the wasp-larva had been supplied ; these 
fragments are no proofs of the wasps having eaten entire in- 
sects. A wasp frequently carries off a large blowfly; but 
what proof is there existing to show that the entire fly be- 
comes the food of a single larva? I imagine such an inference 
will scarcely be accepted as sufficient evidence to overthrow 
the accumulation of facts recorded by a naturalist who is no 
longer living to support his own opinions. 

It is assumed that Mr. Stone made his observations on a 
larva situated in the middle of a comb, or at any rate sur- 
rounded by other cells containing larve, and that, having 
found that which he had searched for during several years, 
he took so little precaution in making his observations, that, 
having seen the parasite feeding, he went away, returned, 
looked into another cell in which was a mature larva of the 
parasite, and in this manner was led to record a series of mis- 
taken observations. I will venture to affirm that, had Mr. 
Murray been acquainted with Mr. Stone’s methodical way of 
making his observations, he would have felt assured of such a 
mistake being impossible. The larve of Rhipiphori, it is 
affirmed, should always be found in sealed cells, if one wasp- 
grub is sufficient to nourish them. Certainly, so they should ; 
and be it observed that Mr. Stone, on taking out the wasps’ 
nest, proceeded to open the “closed cells.” He afterwards 
took thirteen nests which each contained Lhipiphor?, either in 
the larva-, pupa-, or perfect state ; he afterwards records that, 
on opening some “ closed-up cells”? appropriated to queens, 
he found one larva and one pupa. I contend that the fair 
inference to be drawn from this is that all were in closed cells. 
Now it is quite possible that the larvee (he does not say what 
proportion these bore to the pupe and perfect insects) were all 
full-grown, having fed upon the grubs of the wasp: of course 
they “would then be solitary in the cells. Mr. Murray asks 
what the mass of larve were doing in cells by themselves. 
There is no mass spoken of by Mr. Stone. And will Mr. 
Murray venture to aflirm that, as soon as a larva is full-fed, 
it immediately assumes the pupa state? If he will, he will 
do so in the face of an overwhelming mass of evidence to the 


Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 4. Vol. v. 14 


202 Mr. F. Smith on the Parasitism 


contrary. I affirm, from actual observation, that they do 
not. 

It is stated that, if Mr. Stone’s observation is correct, we 
should never see any half-grown larve; there should be no 
medium between a minute one and a full-grown one, except 
during the forty-eight hours at which it is at its meal. I quite 
agree to the cases of exception. Mr. Stone has recorded the 
instance in which he saw a “‘ minute”’ one, and also one which 
he calls ‘‘ small :” the latter is in my possession ; its length is 
3 lines, that of the wasp to which it is attached is 5} lines. 
Mr. Murray has seen these larve, and he states in his paper 
that “ both are well grown.” 

With regard to the difference of size in perfect examples of 
Rhipiphorus, I find the difference to be exactly parallel to that 
which is observable in worker wasps. I have six examples in 
my collection; they differ in size as follows:—9, 10, 11, 114 
millimetres. Worker wasps vary in size from 54 lines to 
7 lines. 

It is stated that the only cases of alleged attacks upon wasp- 
larve are those recorded by Mr. Stone: this is not strictly 
correct, since I have, in my former paper, quoted from the 
Rey. E. Bigg’s paper on wasps the statement that Mr. Deni- 
son, in several instances, observed them in all stages of their 
growth. The Lhipiphorus is called a fly: this, Mr. Curtis 
observes, is, no doubt, the Rhipiphorus which “ deposits its 
egg upon the grub of the wasp at the moment it assumes the 
pupa; as soon as the egg is hatched, it devours the grub of 
the wasp entirely, and itself assumes the pupa and imago form 
in the cells of the wasp.” 

Admitting that many particulars are here wanting, and 
which, no doubt, some intelligent entomologist will furnish 
very shortly, as several are fully bent upon the investigation, 
still every candid person will allow that the statement bears 
strongly in favour of the accuracy of Mr. Stone’s observations. 

When Mr. Stone opened the closed cell in which he found 
a wasp-larva attacked by a minute Lhipiphorus-larva, Mr. 
Murray thinks he should have found a wasp-pupa; why, is 
not stated ; but it is assumed, no doubt, that immediately the 
wasp-grub has spun the silken cap over the mouth of the cell, 
it momentarily assumes the pupa state. If Mr. Murray has 
not, I have, and so have hundreds of persons besides, extracted 
wasp-grubs from closed cells for baits when angling. 

It is assumed that possibly Mr. Stone picked a minute larva 
of Rhipiphorus out of a cell and dropped it upon the wasp- 
larva. ‘If it fell upon a larva,” Mr. Murray observes, “ of 
course there is nothing to be surprised at in its eating it, as 


of Rhipiphorus paradoxus. 203 


the wasp-grub would have done with it if it-had got the first 
chance.”’ 'The cells opened by Mr. Stone contained full-grown 
larvee of wasps; they had therefore ceased to feed. It is also 
stated to be “against all rules of probability that the cell 
should have been opened at that precise juncture of time at 
which it began its attack.” Now I would remind every ento- 
mologist that the fact recorded by Mr. Stone offers an explana- 
tion, because, although many persons have repeatedly found 
Rhipiphorus in wasps’ nests, only two record their having ob- 
served the beetle-larva preying upon that of the wasp. And 
why have they not? ‘The parasitic larva becomes full-fed in 
forty-eight hours: therefore although full-fed larva have been 
found, immature ones have seldom been met with. 

The parasitic larva is always spoken of as having eaten the 
wasp-larva, as if it had fed upon some solid substance. If this 
eating were understood as extracting the soft and semifluid con- 
tents, it would be more correct. Mr. Stone made no “ ludicrous 
blunder ”’ when he stated that it inserted its head beneath that 
of its victim. I see no difficulty in its extracting the entire 
contents of the larval skin in that position ; and I must protest 
against the supposition that Mr. Stone did not know the head 
from the tail of a wasp-larva. 

I shall only, in conclusion, offer a few remarks upon a 
passage in which the statement requires both correction and 
refutation. After alluding to the instance in which Mr. Stone 
discovered a small larva of Rhipiphorus firmly attached to its 
victim, both being dead, the nest having been taken by de- 
stroying the wasps by means of gas-tar, and both having be- 
come partially dried, so that, when immersed in spirit, they 
did not separate, Mr. Murray tells us that he rane this a 
case of double occupation, similar to those which have come 
under his notice, and the attachment to be probably nothing 
more than what may be seen in every bottle of insects sent 
home from abroad or collected at home, the insects having, in 
their mortal agony, seized the nearest object with their man- 
dibles. Now I will ask what analogy is there between the 

erfect insects collected and thrown into a bottle and larve so 
immersed? Have larve been observed to attach themselves 
in spirit? Mr. Stone’s larvee were found attached in the cell, 
dead and partially dried—in fact, just in the position in which 
they were when suddenly killed by the gas-tar. 

In a postscript, Mr. Murray admits having seen the speci- 
mens I have just alluded to, and finds them ‘“ presenting 
almost exactly the same appearance as some specimens in the 
South-Kensington Museum; but he cannot say whether they 
are merely in juxtaposition or if one has its jaws fastened on 

14 


204. Mr. W.S. Kent on the Relationship of 


the other; but both are well grown.” The latter observation 
is not quite correct, and it is calculated to throw some doubt 
upon the accuracy of Mr. Stone’s words, which are, ‘I was 
fortunate in discovering a small larva attached to its victim.” 
The size of the parasitic larva is 3 lines, that of the wasp 5}; 
they have been in spirit since 1865, and were partially dried 
at the time they were immersed, so that the exact relative 
size cannot be ascertained ; but the present difference between 
them justifies Mr. Stone in calling the parasitic larva small. 
I have carefully examined them, and am satisfied of the Rhi- 
piphorus-larva being attached to the wasp-larva just below 
the head; there is no attachment of the rest of its body: I 
have separated the bodies, and proved it. 

The last paragraph of the postscript is entirely supposi- 
tional. Mr. Murray has not shown me any of his specimens: 
I have seen no pupe with the cast skin sticking to their tail ; 
and if I had, I should only have scen the reverse of what Mr. 
Stone records, who describes the larva of Rhipiphorus as 
having its “ mouth buried in the body of the wasp-larva just 
below the head.” 

Let it be distinctly understood that I admit that it is possi- 
ble, but highly improbable, that Mr. Stone has recorded mis- 

taken observations. 

From actual observation I know nothing of the subject. I 
was never so fortunate as to find a nest infested by the para- 
site; but for some years [ had the enjoyment of a close corre- 
spondence with Mr. Stone, and I know him to have been a 
most accurate and careful observer ; and, until actual observa- 
tion prove his statements to be fallacious, I shall have a firm 
belief in their truth. 


XXI1.—Hiickel on the Relationship of the Sponges to the Corals. 
By Wm. 8. Kent, F.Z.S., F.R.M.S., of the Geological 


Department, British Museum. 


SCIENCE does and always must acknowledge herself indebted 
to those who unveil the mysteries of nature by demonstrating 
to us the singleness of purpose and the uniformity of the laws 
which have been in operation from ‘the beginning.” In the 
last two numbers of the ‘ Annals,’ Mr. Dallas favours us with 
a translation of Ernst Hickel’s article, published in the 
‘ Jenaische Zeitschrift,’ ‘On the Or ganization of the Sponges, 
and their Relationship to the Corals.” 

Admitting that once, far away back beyond the limits of 
the Silurian epoch, there in all probability did exist a some- 


the Sponges to the Corals. 205 


thing equivalent to Hiickel’s hypothetical Protascus, and from 
which the existing stock of sponges and corals has probably 
been evolved (and it must not be forgotten, by the way, that 
the latter and by far the more highly organized of the two 
stocks had attained the very zenith of its development long 
before the epoch referred to had commenced its decline), it 
nevertheless forces itself upon one’s mind that the evidence 
he brings forward in support of the supposed intimate relation- 
ship of the two groups as they now exist is based rather on 
affinities of analogy than of homology. 

By the corals, as a matter of course, and in concurrence 
with Hiickel’s own rendering, is understood that section of 
the Ceelenterata known as the Zoantharia or Anthozoa, which 
forms them. Hiickel, after some time spent on the examina- 
tion of the calcareous sponges (‘ Calcispongiz’’), essays to 
demonstrate that the whole group of the sponges 1s far more 
closely allied to that of the Zoantharia than most modern natu- 
ralists have been inclined to allow, and that this particular sec- 
tion contains an existing form, Prosyewm (Hiick.), which, de- 
rived from the hypothetical Protascus, may be regarded as the 
stock-form from which all the other Calcispongiew have been 
evolved. 

This last hypothesis seems possible, and even highly pro- 
bable; and we must not omit here to pay a willing tribute 
of admiration to the valuable contribution to science and the 
vast amount of original information Ernst Hiickel’s recent 
researches have been productive of, and this relative to a 
group of the Spongiade which up to the present time had been 
looked upon as very sparingly represented, but which his 
zealous investigations have resulted in augmenting to no fewer 
than 42 genera and 132 species. At the same time, however, 
the arguments he advances in seeking to demonstrate the 
close relationship of the Spongiade and Actinaria seem scarcely 
sufficient to warrant his proposed amalgamation of the two 
groups as sections of the same subkingdom—many of these 
arguments, moreover, being purely theoretical, and entirely in- 
consistent with the facts which have been elucidated by the 
investigations of other experienced naturalists. 

In accordance with the opinion in the first place conceived 
by Leuckart, Hickel looks upon an aggregation of coral- 
animals, or polyp-colony, as the equivalent of a sponge-mass 
with its large “ water-canals”” opening outwardly ; he, how- 
ever, carries his supposition of existing homologies between 
the two organisms to a far greater extent than the first-named 
writer ever attempted to attain to. 

Maintaining, in confirmation of the theory propounded. by 


206 Mr. W.5S. Kent on the Relationship of 


Oscar Schmidt, that every part of the sponge-body which 
possesses an excurrent orifice (osculum) is to be regarded as a 
distinct individual, he considers each single sponge-body 
bearing only a single osculum, and which he denominates an 
individual or person, to be the equivalent of an Actinia or 
any other such solitary coral-animal—and this not only as far 
as their distinct individuality is concerned, but also in regard 
to their respective morphological characters. 

The accompanying diagrammatic illustrations of sections of 


Fig. 1. Fig. 2. 


Sian’ 
0. ay” ELS. Sei 


Fig. 1. Hypothetical vertical section of a Spongilla having a single 
excurrent orifice: a, excurrent orifice; 0, central excurrent cavity ; 
¢, interstitial canal-system; d, ciliated chambers; e, intermarginal 
cavities; f, incurrent apertures ; g, dermal membrane; h, deeper sub- 
stance of the sponge”. 

Fig. 2. Transverse section of a similar sponge; the lettering corresponds 
with that made use of in the last figure. It is necessary to observe 
that radiate symmetry has been greatly exaggerated in these two 
figures to adapt them as far as possible for comparison with figs. 3 & 4. 


Fig. 3. 


Fig. 3. Ideal vertical section of an Actinia: a, the mouth; 6, alimen- 
tary canal or cavity; c,common digestive cavity; d, intermesen- 
teric chamber, or portion of perivisceral cavity; e, a mesentery; f, re- 
productive organ; g, body-wall; h, tentacles; 2, wall of alimentary canal. 


Fig. 4. ‘Transverse section of the same, the lettering in correspondence 
with the last. 


* Figs. 1 & 3 are modified from illustrations given in Prof. Huxley’s 
‘Introduction to the Classification of Animals.’ 


the Sponges to the Corals. 207 


an ideal sponge-body (Spongil/a), bearing a single osculum, 
and of an ordinary Act’nva will present to the ‘reader such 
analogies or homologies of form and structure as may appear 
to exist, and will* aid materially in the institution of com- 
parisons. 

These two forms may be described as being so far analo- 
gous that, in longitudinal section, they both present the same 
conical outline, that the summit of each cone is provided 
with an aperture, a, and that in both instances this aperture 
communicates with an inferior cavity, 6, which leads again 
into ulterior ramifications marked ¢, d; beyond this, however, 
analogy fails to assist us; and an inquiry into the functional 
properties of these regions demonstrates them to be the very 
opposite to homologous. 

The researches of Huxley, Grant, Carter, Bowerbank, and 
other naturalists have long since demonstrated the essential 
characters of a sponge-body to be the following :— 

In addition to the large apertures, or aperture, as at fig. 1 a, 
the dermal membrane, g, is perforated by an indefinite number 
of smaller ones (pores), marked f; these communicate (by a 
series of canals, of various forms and dimensions, fig. 1, e, d, ¢, 
which traverse the deeper layers of the sponge-body) with the 
osculum, a, by means of the central excurrent cavity, bd. A 
flow of water, when the sponge-mass is in a healthy condition, 
is constantly setting in at the pores, drawn by the ciliary 
action progressing in the chambers marked d, and, havin 
traversed the interstitial canals and cavities in the body- 
mass, debouches into the central excurrent cavity 6, and 
is finally expelled from the organism at the osculum or ex- 
current aperture, a*. 

These currents, according to the observations of Dr. Bower- 
bank, are exercised in two different modes—the one being 
vigorous and of comparatively short duration, when the animal 
is feeding, and the other very gentle and persistent, and bein 
evidently subservient to purposes of respiration only ; and the 
last-named author, whose extensive experience with this class 
of animals is so eminently conspicuous in his excellent and 
exhaustive ‘ Monograph of the British Spongiadze,’ states that 
in no single species which he has had the opportunity of ex- 
amining in a fresh and vigorous condition has he failed to 
detect these currents. 

The same writer also ably proves that the imbibition of the 
surrounding fluid during the energetic action of the sponge is 


* Separate ciliated chambers cannot be said to be essential to the fully 
developed sponge-organism, the ciliated cells in many forms being equally 
distributed throughout the interstitial canal-system, 


208 Mr. W.S. Kent on the Relationship of 


equivalent to the operation of feeding in the higher classes of 
animals. By experiments with finely comminuted indigo 
placed in the water at such times, he observes that the mole- 
cules are rapidly drawn into the pores; and having undergone 
digestion in the sarcode lining of the interior of the sponge, the 
effete matter is ejected through the osculum. ‘The fecal 
matters discharged by the oscula, he adds, exhibit all the 
characteristics of having undergone a complete digestion ; 
and whatever may have been the condition of the molecules 
of organized matter on entering the sponge, their appearance 
after their ejection is always that of a state of thorough 
exhaustion and collapse. 

The foregoing facts amply demonstrate that a fully organized 
sponge is entirely dependent on ciliary action for its nourish- 
ment, and that the nutritious matters on which it subsists are 
brought to it through numerous apertures, and through the 
medium of a more or less complex canal-system. 

Referring, now, to fig. 3, as illustrative of our second class, 
the Zoantharia, it will be easy to ascertain the value of the 
analogies of structure already noticed. 

The terminal orifice, a, is here the sole aperture essential to 
the well-being of the animal. It constitutes a true buccal ori- 
fice or mouth, through which all nutrient matters have to pass 
to the common digestive cavity with its prolongations, c, d, 
through the medium of the alimentary cavity or canal, 6, and 
through which again, after undergoing digestion, all effete 
matters are finally ejected. 

This alimentary system is something totally different from 
what has just been shown to obtain in Spongil/la; and com- 
parison of the means by which the food is here brought into 
relationship with the digestive cavity reveals at once how 
essentially and insuperably the two classes are isolated from 
each other now, however close might have been their bond of 
affinity in by-gone epochs. In the sponge, ciliary action has 
been demonstrated to be the highest force exerted for securing 
the necessary sustenance for its body-mass. This force 
exerted, as I shall presently show there is great reason for 
believing, is a purely mechanical and involuntary one; but 
any one who has watched an Actinia take its food must have 
recognized that it achieves its end by the exercise of a force 
incomparably higher than that produced by the action of cilia, 
its prey, often living creatures almost equalling itself in 
dimensions, being seized and forcibly dragged, by aid of its 
tentacles and its prehensile, and frequently protrusible, lips 
which bound the aperture of the mouth, into its alimentary 
canal,from which it is passed on to the common digestive cavity. 


the Sponges to the Corals. 209 


The shallowness of Leuckart’s hypothesis, in a measure 
supported by Hickel, of a polyp-colony with imperfectly 
separated individuals, devoid of tentacles, stomachal sac (ali- 
mentary canal), and internal septa, being the image of a 
sponge with its large “ water-canals’’ (oscula) opening in- 
wardly, here becomes most evident. Such an organism could 
not exist; for a polyp or polyp-colony bereft of its tentacles, 
and as a matter of course of its prehensile lips, though it might 
be hacked into somewhat the outward resemblance of a 
sponge, would be entirely deprived of its means of subsistence, 
and would, sooner or later, inevitably perish. 

The few facts already adduced suttice to show that the two 
organisms are most distinctly and widely separated from each 
other. ‘There are numerous other points, however, which can 
be best indicated in following up Hiickel’s line of reasoning, 
that demonstrate still further that the sponges cannot be con- 
sistently incorporated with the Coelenterata. In the first 
place, Hiickel endeavours to show that the peculiar canal- 
system of the sponges is not a perfectly specific nutritive ap- 
paratus, such as occurs in no other class of animals, notwith- 
standing that he at the same time admits that all recent 
zoologists who have gained most credit for their systematic 
investigations of the class consider it to be so. 

In opposition to this generally received opinion, he starts 
with the proposition that ‘The sponges are most nearly 
allied to the corals of all organisms. Certain sponges differ 
from certain corals only by a less degree of histological differen- 
tiation, and especially by the want of urticating organs. The 
most essential peculiarity of the organization of the sponges 
is their nutritive canal-system, which is homologous with and 
analogous to the so-called gastrovascular apparatus of the 
Coelenterata.” 

This latter portion of his proposition is certainly somewhat 
startling, after consideration of the facts which have been al- 
ready stated. Before proceeding to bring forward his evi- 
dence in support of his rather astounding proposition, he next 
proceeds, somewhat prematurely, to prepare for them a snug 
place where they may be interpolated among, and as represen- 
tatives of, the true Ccelenterata. 

Such an end he achieves by entirely upsetting the clear 
limits by which this subkingdom is marked out and subdivided, 
with the mutual consent of the most eminent naturalists of the 
day. There is scarcely any other subkingdom which is more 
clearly defined, under its present limitations, than the Ccelen- 
terata, or one that is further subdivided into two more clear and 
distinct sections than that of the Actinozoa and Hydrozoa. 


210 Mr. W.S. Kent on the Relationship of 


Ignoring this system, substantiated as it is by well-marked 
structural characteristics, he proposes to substitute in its place 
one primarily dependent on mere external resemblances, thus 
leading us back to the same stage we had arrived at exactly 
one century ago. 

Hickel’s proposed system of redistributing the Coelenterata 
is, in the first place, to separate it into two sections, which he 
distinguishes as bush-animals (‘Thamnoda) and _sea-jellies 
Meduse). The first of these he further separates into the two 
classes of the sponges (Spongiz) and corals (Corallia), and the 
second into that of the umbrella-jellies (Hydromedusz) and 
comb-jellies (Ctenophore). In which of these classes the 
Hydroid Zoophytes (comprising the Hydride, Corynide, and 
Sertularidz) are to be included, there is no indication whatever, 
and it is scarcely to be inferred that he would incorporate them 
with the coral-forming Actinozoa. 

Having viewed Hiickel’s elevation of the Spongiade to the 
rank of true Coelenterates, we next search for the evidence 
promised in support of the very sweeping change he seeks to 
effect. 

In the first place he states that the actual homology which he 
presumes to exist between the sponges and corals has hitherto 
been, for the most part, overlooked in consequence of the inves- 
tigations of zoologists being almost entirely confined to the two 
common forms Spongilla and Huspongia, which he considers to 
differ considerably from the original and typical structure of 
the entire class; and he says that the legion of the Calci- 
spongie is much better calculated to shed a light upon their 
typical organization and their true affinities. One sponge, 
however, belonging to his chosen legion (Grantia compressa, 
indigenous to our coasts) has formed the subject of particular 
investigation by Dr. Bowerbank and other naturalists; and 
though the different regions are modified in this species to a 
considerable extent, the same type of structure is essentially 
predominant. The central excurrent cavity, fig. 1 6, of 
Spongilla, for instance, is in Grantia developed to a marvel- 
lous extent, and this at the expense of the complex interstitial 
canal-system, which is almost entirely rudimentary. The 
functions of nutrition, however, are carried out upon precisely 
the same principle, the pabulum being received into the body- 
mass at the pores, and, after undergoing digestion, being ex- 
creted at the oscula, as in other Spongiade ; and, in fact, this 
species is the form in which the ciliary action and the cha- 
racteristic incurrent and excurrent flow of the water before 
described has been viewed with greater facility than in almost 
any other. 


the Sponges to the Corals. 211 


The canal-system, with the circulatory and nutritive func- 
tions dependent upon it, has, then, been demonstrated to obtain 
in both the calcareous and siliceous sponges, as represented 
by Grantia and Spongilla. Nor is evidence wanting to show 
that the same arrangement holds good with the third order, or 
Keratosa. 

Dr. Grant, in his interesting description of the excurrent 
action of the sponges in general, remarks upon Spongia panicea 
as exhibiting the strongest current he ever witnessed; and, to 
use his own words, he says, “‘'T'wo entire round portions of 
this sponge were placed together in a glass of sea-water, with 
their orifices (oscula) opposite to each other, at the distance of 
two inches; they appeared to the naked eye like two living 
batteries, and soon covered each other with feculent matter.” 

The whole weight of Hickel’s argument in favour of the 
sponges being incorporated with the corals rests upon his in- 
sisting on designating the excretory orifice of the sponge its 
mouth or incurrent orifice, and in regarding the interstitial 
canal-system as homologous with the ccelenteric-vascular 
system of the corals. Reflection alone, in connexion with the 
foregoing facts, is sufficient to show his first assumption to be 
both inconsistent and untenable ; and it is likewise a matter of 
no great difficulty to demonstrate that his latter assumption of 
homology of structure is entirely hypothetical. 

Now this ccelenteric-vascular or gastrovascular system of 
the Actinaria, what is it? As may be shown, something far 
simpler than the lengthy terminology made use of by Hickel 
would seem to imply. 

A transverse section of any Actinozoon presents us with 
the appearance shown at fig. 4—a double tube, the inner one 
of which, 0, is the alimentary canal, and is brought into rela- 
tionship by means of radiating connexions, the mesenteries, e, 
with the outer one, or body-wall of the animal, g. This sec- 
tion is supposed to be taken about halfway down in the region 
marked 6 in fig. 3. The six spaces marked d, in fig. 4, are 
the intermesenteric chambers; and though separated from each 
other by the mesenteries at this point of section, they com- 
municate with each other freely lower down by means of the 
common digestive cavity, fig. 3, ¢, of which, in fact, they 
are simply prolongations. The region of the mesenteries, 
surrounding as it does the alimentary cavity or canal, is 
generally known as the perivisceral cavity; into this all 
the nutrient matters are passed, and undergo digestion, after 
having traversed the alimentary canal of the animal; and this 
is what constitutes the ccelenteric-vascular or gastrovascular 
system of Hiickel. Such is the essential and symmetrical 


212 Mr. W.S. Kent on the Relationship of 


type of structure which obtains throughout the Actinozoa ; we 
now turn to the sponge tribe to ascertain what its represen- 
tative shares in common with it. 

Fig. 2 is supposed to represent a transverse section of a 
highly developed sponge with a single excurrent aperture, 
as at fig. 1, taken through a similar region as the section at 
fig. 4. 

A glance is sufficient to show us at once that we have here 
something entirely irreconcilable with what obtains in the 
corresponding section of an Actinozoon, and very few words 
will suffice to indicate how sharply defined and “ thorough- 
going” are the points of distinction. 

The most striking of all the phenomena presented are, per- 
haps, the perforations in the body-wall, f, f, f (assuming for 
the nonce that this sponge-body is a distinct individual) ; these 
apertures are as essential to the existence of the sponge as the 
single terminal buccal orifice is to the Actinia, and are, in fact, as 
has been already shown, the channels through which it derives 
all matters of nutrition. Next we have the interstitial system 
of canals pervading the whole body-mass, intercommunicating 
with each other in every direction, and finally debouching in 
the common excurrent cavity 6. Can we be said to have here 
any thing homologous or even analogous to the double tube 
and symmetrical mesenteric system of the Actinozoon ? Hiickel 
endeavours to surmount the difficulty of this peculiar and es- 
sential incurrent porous system of the sponge by supposing 
the cuticular pores in connexion with the somatic cavity oc- 
casionally met with in some Actinic to be its homologue ; but 
these cuticular pores of the sea-anemone are exceptional, and 
by no means an essential portion of the animal’s structure, 
and much less are they subservient to its functions of nutrition. 
He presumes, again, that these cuticular pores may be constant, 
though hitherto unobserved, in all the Actinozoa, and that 
currents of water, serving respiratory purposes, are constantly 
passing through them into the general stomachal cavity ; and 
taking this for granted, he, in the next paragraph, asserts, 
as a matter of positive fact, “ that an essential morphological 
difference does not exist between the nutrient vascular system 
of the sponges and corals;” that both (solitary individuals) 
possess a central cavity or stomach, which opens outwards by 
a single large orifice (the osculum or mouth), from which 
cavity canals issue in all directions, which traverse the body- 
wall, and finally open on the surface by the cutaneous pores. 

This assertion is built up on a framework of mere hypo- 
thesis ; and its entire fallacy is proved by the fact that the 
largest section of the coral-forming Actinozoa, the whole of 


the Sponges to the Corals. 213 


the Madreporaria imperforata, includes genera, such as Caryo- 
phyllia, Flabellum, Lophohelia, Euphyllia, Phyllangia, and 
numbers of others, in which the whole body-wall is strengthened 
by a compact and imperforate theca, which, again, is frequently 
rendered still more dense by the superposition of an equally 
compact and imperforate epitheca. n current of water passing 
through the body-wall into the somatic cavity of these animals 
would thus be a matter of perfect impossibility ; and even if 
such did constantly exist, the perforations for its admission 
would be something essentially different from the apertures 
occupying the same position in the sponge: in the latter they 
have been proved to be the channels through which the body- 
mass derives all matters of nutrition, while in the Actinozoa 
they could, at the outside, be subservient only to the func- 
tion of respiration; the aperture subservient to nutrition, as 
already shown, being the terminal buccal orifice or mouth. 
The very few isolated examples of the Actinozoa, however, 
in which these cutaneous pores have been found to exist, de- 
monstrate beyond doubt that they cannot be subservient to so 
important and essential a function as that of respiration. 

The next argument brought forward by Hickel appears, at 
first sight, to be more formidable, though on closer inspection 
its seeming importance vanishes. In the first place he testi- 
fies to having examined sponges whose oscula have permitted 
the inflow as well as the outflow of water. This condition 
of affairs, however, appears to have been quite an abnormal 
one; he cites no single instance in which the inflow of water 
at the osculum proved constant; and, as I shall hereafter show, 
this temporary and abnormal condition observed by him can 
readily be accounted for. The second and, seemingly, the 
more important part of his argument is his statement that 
certain sponges exist which possess no cutaneous pores at all. 
(The advantage his theory derives from this fact, after his 
assumption that all Actinozoa do possess them, is not clearly 
perceptible.) On inquiry into what sponges these are, how- 
ever, we find that they consist of only two microscopically 
small forms, for one of which he proposes the name of 
Prosycum. Now the very fact of their microscopic minute- 
ness entirely neutralizes the force of his argument, the small 
number of amceboid particles which must constitute so minute 
a sponge-mass being necessarily brought into relationship with 
the surrounding element without the requirement of a complex 
canal-system ; and for the same reason, again, they find suffi- 
cient nutriment in the water around them (as with the ordi- 
nary fixed Rhizopoda, to which these low sponge-forms seem 
most closely to approximate) without being dependent on the 
action of ciliary currents. 


214 Mr. W.S. Kent on the Relationship of 


Hickel’s “ontogenetic” arguments in favour of the close 
relationship of the sponges to the corals next attract our atten- 
tion; but whatever ‘ phylogenetic” significance may be at- 
tached to them, it is quite sufficient to reply that evidence of 
affinity may be substantiated on equally strong grounds be- 
tween the respective classes of the Scolecida, the Annelida, 
and the Echinodermata, these all originating, in common with 
the sponges and corals, ffrom free-swimming ciliated larve in 
possession of a simple digestive cavity, opening outwards by 
a single terminal orifice. 

We are now in a position to demonstrate not only that the 
representatives of the Porifera, or sponge-class, are quite dis- 
tinct from the Actinaria or Coelenterate coral-forming animals, 
but that they belong to a section peculiar in itself, and far less 
highly organized. 

Commencing with the alimentary apparatus. It has been 
shown that the buccal orifice in the Cceelenterata is single and 
terminal. In the Spongiade, on the contrary, its homologue 
consists of a multitudinous and indefinite number of apertures 
which perforate the body-wall of the organism. 

In the Ceelenterata this single buccal orifice is also the 
channel through which all excretory matters are voided. In 
the Spongiade there are distinct apertures, the flues or oscula, 
set apart for the purpose of carrying off the effete matters. 

All Actinaria are provided with tentacles, or, where these 
are rudimentary, with a prehensile and protrusible buccal ori- 
fice, wherewith they sieze and secure their prey. The most 
highly developed sponges are dependent on the action of ciliary 
currents for the acquisition of the nutrient matters which sup- 
port them. 

This last diagnosis may, I think, be regarded as one of the 
highest importance,—the one force (in the case of the Actinaria) 
being exerted by the free will of the animal, and the other 
one, we have every reason to believe, being purely involun- 
tary and vegetative. Dr. Bowerbank himself directs atten- 
tion to the fact that the ciliary action which progresses within 
the interstitial cavities of the sponge is precisely similar in 
its nature to what obtains in the ciliated epithelium of the 
higher vertebrata; this we know to be involuntary: have we 
any reason for supposing that it assumes a more complex 
nature in the low-organized animals now under consideration ? 
One objection that will probably be urged, as inconsistent with 
the theory of the sponges acquiring their nutriment through 
the agency of involuntary action, is the fact that at different 
periods the inflow of water through the pores varies much in 
the strength of its action. This objection, however, is easily 


the Sponges to the Corals. 215 


overruled when we come to consider that the animal mass 
possesses such an amount of irritability and contractility in 
its dermal membrane that it is enabled to reduce the size of the 
orifices of its incurrent pores to a mere minimum, or, indeed, 
to close them altogether. This second condition of affairs 
(that of the partial closing of the pores) is actually certified 
by Dr. Bowerbank to exist during the less vigorous action of 
the ciliary currents in Spongilla, Grantia, and other genera. 
Now, supposing that this contraction is carried to the utmost, 
and the incurrent orifices are entirely closed, premising that the 
ciliary action, which seems to be a fair presumption, is in a 
constant state of progress, what result should we arrive at ? 
The terminal osculum would alone remain open, and a sluggish 
current would probably set in at it, as Hackel and his pupil 
Miklucho testify to having occasionally witnessed ; and in sup- 
port of this proposed interpretation, it is a significant fact that 
Hiickel, in recording the phenomenon of a current setting in 
at the osculum, makes no mention whatever of one setting out 
at the pores, which, had they been open, must inevitably have 
taken place*. 

Equal in importance to the wide difference which most evi- 
dently exists between the alimentary and nutritive systems of 
the two classes in question, is that of the histological structure 
of the body-mass itself. 

Hiickel contends that the tissues of the sponge are as clearly 
separable into an ectoderm and an endoderm as are those of the 


* A curious demonstration of the involuntary nature of ciliary action 
was brought before my notice two summers ago. Having for some 
time kept that interesting and abnormal Polyzoon, Cristatella mucedo, alive 
in a glass receptacle, it at length, from exhaustion of the supply of food 
or other causes, died, decayed, and underwent disintegration. One day 
my attention was drawn to the vessel which had contained it by a number 
of particles of organized matter of various sizes careering about in the 
water in a most grotesque and extraordinary manner—some propelling 
themselves straight ahead and simply rotating on their axes, others de- 
scribing circles, parabolic and spiral curves, and a host of other figures, 
which even a Senior Wrangler would be puzzled to describe. For- 
getting at the moment what had formerly been placed in the vessel, it 
first suggested itself that these were some peculiar Infusoria or larval 
conditions of other higher organisms ; on specimens being examined with 
the aid of the microscope, however, the fact was revealed that they were 
nothing more nor less than fragments of the decomposed tentacles of the 
once translucent Cristatella, propelled through their mazy courses by the 
still active vibration of the cilia which clothed them. Now the thorough 
disintegration of these tentacles must have taken place many days, if not 
weeks, after the death of the animal; and the motion, moreover, con- 
tinuing vigorously for a number of days after my first observation of the 
phenomenon, we have here proof direct of the involuntary nature of ciliary 
action, if, indeed, we are not justified in describing it as simply a phase of 
the molecular. 


216 Mr. W.S. Kent on the Relationship of 


Actinaria : such a differentiation, however, is, to say the least of 
it, carried out to a considerably less degree. There are certain 
sponges which are invested with a pellicular and somewhat 
tough dermal membrane; but in the majority of instances and 
in the most highly organized representatives of the class, such 
an amount of differentiation is by no means recognizable. The 
new and very beautiful siliceous sponge Holtenia Carpentert, 
recently dredged by Prof. Wyville Thomson and Dr. Car- 
penter in the Shetland seas, is a good example of this type of 
organization. A fine specimen of this highly interesting form, 
immersed in spirit, has recently been consigned to the National 
Collection; but the appearance of the body-substance to the 
unassisted eye is that of a simple homogeneous mass of sarcode, 
showing a tendency to fracture in every direction, aggregated 
upon the dense network of spicula which support it*, some- 
thing entirely different from the appearance of an Actinarian 
viewed under similar conditions. This form, moreover, possess- 
ing a single very large flue or osculum, would be regarded 
by Hiackel as correlative with a solitary Actinia; and the 
large size of this species (the body of the sponge proper mea- 
suring some four inches in both length and diameter, and 
having a general excurrent aperture of the width of an inch 
and a half) would be admirably adapted for comparison with 
some huge A. crasstcornis; the differences existing between 
two such similar structures, however, as in the examples of 
Spongilla and an ordinary Actinia, have been already so 
clearly indicated as to render further comparison unneces- 
sary, except, perhaps, that, in the living condition, the firm 
elastic ectoderm of crassicornis would offer a most striking 
and distinctive feature by the side of the low-organized and 
glairy sarcodic investiture of Holtenia. 

While on the subject of the dermal investiture of the 
sponges, it will not be out of place to remark that in those 
instances where the dermal membrane attains a comparatively 
high degree of development, it has been observed, most gene- 
rally, to possess a peculiarity essentially its own, and one not 
met with in any Coelenterate organism. This is its property 
of being able to separate its individual component particles at 
any point whatever, and so form the pores, f, figs. 1 & 2, for 


* It has been suggested to me that the spicular skeletal system of the 
Spongiads seems to indicate their close relationship to the Actinozoa. 
Siliceous spicula most closely resembling those of the Spongiadée, however, 
are of common occurrence in that section of the true Protozoa known 
as the Radiolaria, the great spicule-secreting division of the Actinozoa 
(the Alcyonaria), on the other hand, never being found to possess any 
thing like an approach to such forms. 


the Sponges to the Corals, ral, 


the admission of the water into the subjacent intermarginal 
cavities, e; on these becoming closed up, on account of irrita- 
tion or other causes, apertures reappear, not where the origi- 
nal ones obtained, but at a totally different portion of the 
membrane. ‘This property is essentially Protozoic. Accord- 
ing to Hiickel, the only difference in histological structure 
existing between the Ccelenterata and the Spongiade is that 
the representatives of the former possess nematophores or 
urticating cells, while those of the latter are entirely devoid 
of them. It must be admitted that this distinction is of 
itself a very important one, since it demonstrates that the 
former possess a much more complex degree of organization. 
But this is surely not all: Hiickel seems to have entirely 
ignored the fact that the tissues of the Coelenterata undergo 
a still further degree of modification, and assume the form of 
true unstriated muscular tissue; and in some of the higher 
forms (the Ctenophora) even a nervous system has been 
discovered. 

In the sponges, on the other hand, primitive fibrous or 
connective tissue is the very highest degree of differentiation 
which obtains. 

Lastly, it may be considered an open question whether a 
sponge-body can lay claim to the rank of distinct and separate 
individuality, or whether, as in accordance with the views of 
the majority of modern writers, it must not be regarded as an 
ageregation of amcebiform animals building up among them- 
selves a common skeletal support. 

This latter interpretation forces itself strongly upon one’s 
mind when we come to consider the nature of the sarcodic 
substance lining all the interstitial cavities of the sponge, and 
spreading itself out upon and investing its horny, siliceous, 
or calcareous skeleton, which sarcode is capable of resolving 
itself into masses of unequal size and variable form, of sepa- 
rating itself from the parent mass and becoming developed 
into a perfect sponge, or of uniting with it again, or with any 
other Ena of the same species. 

In the same way with the minute sponge-particles lining 
the passages, each of which is capable of appropriating to it- 
self the molecules of food brought within its reach; so that, to 
borrow a metaphor from Professor Huxley, when treating on 
Spongilla, ‘We must not compare the system of apertures 
and canals to so many mouths and intestines, but the sponge 
represents a kind of subaqueous city, where the people are 
arranged about the streets and roads in such a manner that 
each can appropriate his food from the water as it passes 
along.” 


Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 4. Vol. v. 15 


218 Viscount Walden on new Species of Birds 


Viewed in this light, the affinity of the Spongiade to the 
Protozoa rather than to the Coelenterata makes itself eminently 
conspicuous. Compared with the latter subkingdom, it is 
evident that the sponges possess a very much lower degree of 
organization and an essentially different type of structure, 
while at the same time their occasionally differentiated and 
consolidated dermal membrane, their development, in some 
instances, of primitive fibrous tissue, and their complex inter- 
stitial canal-system entitle them, in a natural and morpho- 
logical system of classification, to be ranked as the highest 
representatives of the Protozoa. 


XXII.— Descriptions of some new Species of Birds from 
Southern Asia. By Arruur, Viscount WALDEN, P.Z.S. &c. 


Sitta neglecta, n. sp. 


Above pale slate-colour. Stripe from nostrils, through the 
eyes to nape, black. Lores, supercilium, cheeks, chin, and 
base of primaries white. Throat tawny white. Breast pale 
rufous, deepening into dark rusty on remainder of lower 
surface. Under tail-coverts white, with narrow rusty edgings. 
Middle rectrices uniform slate-colour. Wing 3 inches; bill 
4 inch. 

Three examples of this Nuthatch were obtained from the 
Karen Hills of the Toungoo district, Burma. It differs from 
its nearest ally, 8. Aémalayensis, J.&S., by its much stouter and 
longer bill, by the deep ferruginous tint of the under surface, 
and by the absence of a white spot on the basal half of the 
middle rectrices. 

Passer assimilis, n. sp. 


Resembles P. ciénnamomeus, Gould, but differs by being 
smaller, by having a slenderer and smaller bill, and by having 
the cheeks and sides of the neck pure white, and the breast, 
flanks, and ventral region ashy grey. Wing 23 inches; tail 
18, or nearly half an inch shorter than in P. eénnamomeus. 

From Toungoo. 


Glaucomytas sordida, n. sp. 


General colour ashy grey, washed with a faint tinge of blue 
or greenish blue. T*orehead, supercilium, chin, and lesser 
shoulder-coverts deep pure blue. Under shoulder-coverts, 
axillaries, vent, and under tail-coverts white. Tail brown, 
with a dingy gloss of dark green. Bill, legs, and claws black. 
Lores black. Wing nearly 3 inches; tail 24; tarsus +; fourth 
and fifth quills equal; third nearly as long ; second still shorter 


from Southern Asia. 219 


than third; first half the length of second.. Bill lengthened 
and much hooked. 

Four examples of this very distinct species were sent to me 
from Ceylon. Iam not certain that it should not be classed 
as a Cyornis, near to C. wnicolor, Blyth. At first sight it re- 
sembles an immature G’. melanops, Vigors. 

Prinia albogularis, n. sp. 

Upper surface, cheeks, and sides of neck ashy brown, faintly 
tinged with olive. Quills and upper surface of tail brown. 
Quills edged externally with rufous. Chin, throat, ventral 
region, and under tail-coverts pure white. Breast and flanks 
ashy grey, the grey breast contrasting strongly with the white 
throat. ‘Tail consisting of ten feathers, each of which, except 
the middle pair, is tipped with white, which forms an edging 
to a black terminal spot; remaining under surface of tail pale 

rey. Under shoulder-coverts, thigh-coverts, and inner webs 
of all the quills rufous. Bill black. Legs pale flesh-colour. 
Fourth, fifth, and sixth quills equal and longest; third and 
seventh equal and a little shorter; second a quarter of an inch 
shorter than third; first half the length of third. Tail 2 inches, 
wing 14, tarsus 1. 

From Coorg. 

The broad ash-coloured pectoral band is a striking character 
in this species. 

Megalaima tnornata, n. sp. 


The large green Barbet of South-western India has hitherto 
been confounded with that of Central India, IM. caniceps 
(Franklin). That of South-western India, to which I give the 
above title, is to be distinguished from all the other known 
green Barbets by having the chin, throat, breast, and upper 
portion of the abdominal region uniform pale brown. Lach 
feather has the shaft, very faintly, paler. The plumage above 
closely resembles that of JZ. caniceps; but the terminal spots 
on the wing-coverts and tertiaries are almost altogether want- 
ing. The dimensions of both species are nearly alike, but 
the bill of M. caniceps (ex Maunbhoom) is shorter and not so 
stout. The absence of the broad pale median streaks on the 
pectoral plumage readily distinguishes this species. 

Described from two Malabar examples, two from Coorg, 
and three from Candeish. 


Buchanga leucogenis, nu. sp. 


General colour pale, delicate slate-grey, or French grey. 
Chin, narial plumes, and terminal portion of the primaries 
black. An oval patch on each side of the head, surrounding 

15* 


220 Dr. J. Hector’s List of the Bones of Seals and Whales 


the eyes and extending from the base of the bill to beyond 
the cheeks, pure white. Bill and feet black. Wing 54 inches ; 
tail5i. Immature birds have the grey tint more or less sordid, 
and the white facial patch indistinct. 

This well-characterized species of Drongo has hitherto been 
mistaken for the Dicrurus leucopheus, Vieill.; but, as Vieillot’s 
title was founded on Levaillant’s 170th plate (Ois. d’Afr.), it 
must be referred to D. cineraceus, Horsf., over which designa- 
tion it takes precedence. The white-faced Drongo inhabits 
Malacca, Cambodja, China, and Japan, being probably only 
a migrant to the two latter countries. The above description 
is taken from a Nagasaki example. 


Buchanga mouhoti, n. sp. 


Belongs to the ‘“ Ashy Drongos” (P. Z. 5. 1866, p. 546), and 
was obtained by M. Mouhot in Cambodja. Above ashy grey 
or plumbeous, rather darker than in B. lewcophea, ex Java. 
Under surface lighter ashy, but darker than in the Javan spe- 
cies. Upper surface of middle rectrices grey, as in the Javan 
bird. Wing 52 inches; outer tail-feathers 5%, middle tail- 
feathers 52 ; difference between outer and middle pairs 14; bill 
from nostril full £ of an inch. 

A species intermediate in dimensions and colouring between 
B. leucophea and B. pyrrhops, Hodgs. 


Buchanga wallacet, n. sp. 


Above dark ashy green, with a silky gloss. Underneath 
a shade lighter, but without any gloss, except on the breast. 
Upper surface of rectrices glossy greenish brown ; no traces of 
ash-colour. Bifureation of the tail moderate. Wing 5 inches 
to 54; outer tail-feathers 5 inches, middle pair 4 inches. 

Described from specimens obtained in Lombock by Mr. 
Wallace. 


XXIII.—List of the Bones of Seals and Whales in the Colo- 
nial Museum, Wellington, New Zealand. By Dr. JAMES 
Hecror, F.R.S. With Notes by Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S. 


SEALS. 


1. Stenorhynchus leptonyx, Gray, Cat. Seals and Whales, 
p- 16. One skull. (‘I'wo stuffed specimens in the Dunedin 
Museum, one in Christchurch.) 

This seal is not uncommon, several individuals being 
stranded on the east coast every winter. 
Dunedin specimen described in Trans. New-Zealand Inst. 


vol. it, by J. S. Webb. 


in the Colonial Museum, Wellington, New Zealand. 221 


2. Arctocephalus leonina (Otaria leonina, Gray, ibid. p. 59). 
Stuffed skin. 

Common fur-seal of the west coast. 

[It isvery desirable that a skull of the fur-seal of New 
Zealand should be observed. It can hardly be Otarta leonina, 
which has only been found on the coast of South America, 
is a hair-seal, and has very little or no under-fur.—J. E. G.] 


CETACEA. 


1. Balena marginata, Gray, ibid. p. 90. 

Skull and baleen. 

From the description given at page 90 of the British- 
Museum ‘ Catalogue of Seals and Whales,’ there is no doubt 
that the baleen corresponds with the above species. The 
specimen was obtained at Kawau Island by Sir George Grey, 
and appears to be unique, as the species has hitherto only 
been known from the baleen. 

The dimensions are as follows :— 


Wearht:or eramiii o fore ease ain os bee 58 lbs. 
x LOW OE: GW ssrncac crate. Weis thot une.: I: 

ft. in 

CGP Tne. crscaay serie eS Greta za cneiene oe 4 9 

Hront nasalisecnon! os. ase. Sans ores 2 10 

Mo centre-of Orbit: os i..6 5's cate ed ahs «/e 3 10 

WAdGHS BELOR Mite ines clne ects cote 2 5 

“ WMAastold PEOCESS fori. owes ss Deri 

in. lin 

Lower jaw, highs e292 eG Du Cle 3 11 

Depth (greatest) os aso eel GkM le a 8 0 


Baleen 29 inches long, 33 inches in extreme width. 
Black margin from 7 to 2 inch. 


Knox now admits that this is not the Sulphur-bottom, which 
he says is the Trigger of the New-Zealand whalers. He 
fancies that B. marginata may be the true Finner of the south. 
I will try to find some more of the bones. I enclose a copy 
of Knox’s description of the 'Trigger-whale, from a paper in 
course of publication. 

(‘This whale, from the form and structure of the whalebone, 
cannot be a Finner, but is certainly, as I arranged it, a true 
Right Whale, very nearly allied to the Right Whale of Green- 
land, and of a very small size. The bones of this whale would 
be a most valuable addition to the British Museum or any 
zoological museum. They appear not to be uncommon in 
the Kawau Islands; and the measurements of the skull are a 
valuable addition to our knowledge of the species. 

This small Right Whale of the Antarctic Sea is the repre- 


222 Dr. J. Hector’s List of the Bones of Seals and Whales 


sentative of the Right Whale in the Arctic Sea, and, judging 
from the length of the head, cannot be more than 14 or 15 feet 
long, while the Greenland whale is from 50 to 65 feet long.— 


J. £.G.] 


2. Globiocephalus macrorhynchus, Gray, ibid. p. 320. 

Two skulls, one in longitudinal section; one lower jaw ; 
six cervical, four lumbar, thirteen caudal vertebrae; two sca- 
pule; two hyoids, Both skulls are of the same dimensions :— 


. inches. 
DTTC 8 IR eR et lye AL ae Br a rine arr aie 26 
Peers OF HOSES. 3S ka lck ue cou ot aoe ae 15 
Poneih of tooth-series. ... 5 iis). ete ome 8 
Tieneth. Gl LOWET JAW 106 ty ehe alec a tee we sie 15 
(This is of a different individual.) 
yuan eGduoneis': 224 sweep tete eta ew ate iB! 
3 GEMIGs se PO aes ot es 17 
Width of intermaxillary at blow-hole .... 7:5 
Width at middle of nose ........ 06.5008. 9°5 
Height at. oevipiut 0.5 viid.we Hema ee 14 
Scapula, transverse diameter ............ 15 
sx longitudinal diameter ... .:.... 12 


Hyoid arch 11 inches wide by 7 inches high. 

Sternum 10 x 7 inches—with three sternal ribs, each 7 inches 
long. 

The first rib is 10 inches from head to tip, but is bent with 
an arch of 5 inches. 

The atlas, axis, and three other cervicals are anchylosed. 
The compound cervicals have a conjoined length of 4 inches. 
Vertical diameter of foramen magnum 24 inches. Conjoined 
leneth of the four lumbars 8 inches ; height, including spinous 
processes, 8°5 inches. Caudal apparatus, of thirteen segments, 


16 inches; two of these are anchylosed. Teeth =. 


3. Berardius Arnuxti, Duvernoy ; Gray, did. p. 348. 


Skull and lower jaw, a cervical vertebra, scapula, hyoid, 
paddles, and pelvic bones of one individual. 
Single tooth of another individual, weight 206 grains. 


inches. 

Tenoth of head. 40.) 2 opiseecialls Pope 23°5 

Ly BOBS)’ olosee atte cule mnolocn eects 15 

“3 dental @roaye.... 5 /.: thas suieaias ib 

Ps LOWED IAW ois: cuwite cape 19 
NVTGEE a TROBE 4.510 c- rn ss, Soa Te ee 5:5 

Dn 24514: Meee EMR SE PAIR, Oe one 9°5 
Width of intermaxillary at blow-holes.... 4°65 

a TLOSO Peek ea eT ce ree 2 


Height at -eccipilts 62. Pe, eet ee 9°5 


in the Colonial Museum, Wellington, New Zealand. 223 


One small tooth imbedded close to tip of lower jaw on left 
side, *1 inch high, weight 38°8 grains, irregular triangular shape. 

This is the skull of a young animal. A groove containing 
a strong ligament connecting the muscle of the forehead with 
the snout is deeply imbedded in the intermaxillary groove. 
The snout is described as long and flexible. Atlas and axis 
anchylosed. Length of cervical group 3°7 inches. Scapula, 
longitudinal diameter 10 inches, transverse diameter 6 inches. 
Paddles, length 14 inches, width 34 inches. Hyoid arch 
5°5 x 4 inches high. Pelvic bones 24 inches. 

The specimen was cast on the beach on tlie west coast, and 
prepared by Dr. Knox. 

[This animal, which is at present unknown in Europe, and 
therefore very desirable to procure, does not appear to be un- 
common in New Zealand. Thereis a skull, obtained in 1846, 
in the Museum at Paris.—J.E.G.] 

“A fine specimen of Berardius Arnuxti has been cast ashore 
on the coast of Canterbury, New Zealand. It was made into 
a skeleton, which is now in the museum at Canterbury. The 
skeleton is complete, only wanting one of the pelvic bones. 
It was 30 feet long, and a young animal; not a single epi- 
physis is anchylosed. The cervical vertebra, which in the 
old animal evidently form a compact mass, are still partly 
free; the first three vertebre (including the atlas) anchylosed, 
and of these the first two completely, and of the 2nd and 3rd 
the neural arches are as yet not completely united into one 
bone. It has ten ribs.” —Julius Haast. 


A, Lagenorhynchus clanculus, Gray, ibid. p. 271. 

Complete skeleton. 

Length 5 feet 1 inch. 

Cervicals seven, anchylosed, 1:3 inch. 

Dorsals fourteen, 11°5 inch. 

Lumbar and caudal forty-eight, thirty-four of which have 
processes and may be considered lumbars. 


Skull :— inches. 
Reena CeO ta 8 acs 2 ins chil cokeke Sues vlehiollee opera 14 
hemeth. O8 Weak rs. 54 alts peel ratty ore 75 
Wii atrial | syns sls chi ee rete dligovas) wean 3:5 

FY SPIEL ees ee Ne Sects Ser An el yy 6 
Intermaxillary at blow-hole ............ 2:7 
Middle, of healed an) ee oaaatars ad e\atckinw cine 2-5 
Pr eiohit etioecipati) were aes see ee ee cls S ueilees 57 

Pengili ot flappers yaw GAs Wao Riek» chy 12 

Scapula, longitudinal diameter ............ 6° 


59 transverse PAP ery ta eee 4-5 


224 Dr.J. Hector’s List of Bones of Seals and Whales. 


This specimen was harpooned outside Wellington Harbour, 
and appears to be the common dolphin of the coast. 
Two lower jaws of two other individuals of the same. 


Three skulls of Delphinus, sp. ? 


Fossil Cetacea. 


Fragments are abundant in the Pliocene marine Tertiaries ; 
and several almost complete skeletons are known, but have 
not been removed from the rock. The fragments that are in 
the Museum cannot be referred to any class with certainty. 


Extract from a paper by F. J. Knox. 1869. 
Rorquaus. (Trigger, Razor-back, Sulphur-bottom.) 


To be distinguished from the Finner, which is probably the 
Balena marginata. 

The fin in this species of the Balenide is placed in the 
usual position, immediately above the generative organs. It 
is said to average from 380 to 55 feet in length. The baleen 
is short, and the blubber in comparatively small quantity. 
This species resembles the great Rorqual in general habits, 
and, although numerous, does not form a tempting object of 
capture for the practical whaler, They are common in the 
neighbourhood ot the New-Zealand group of islands. 

‘Two young specimens were caught and stranded in Porirua 
harbour, thirteen miles north of Wellington, in 1867, neither 
of which I was able to preserve, only taking the measurements 
as detailed in the annexed tables. ‘The dorsal surface was of 
a jet and glossy black, becoming of a light grey on the abdo- 
men, ‘The characteristic plaits or folds were well developed. 
The longest baleen blade was 2 feet, of a pale yellow or 
cream-colour. The osteology and comparative anatomy of 
this Rorqual were not ascertained. 

A young female specimen; weight 300 lbs. 

Measurements :— 


ft. in 

nowt tostap of tall ites. Pees « 9 10 

Greatest cireumference .............. 6 8 
PROWL TO MONTHS s 654. kek bas cae ae tee L 6S 

9 Cente Of eves 22 Foes «seme Oss 2 

x Gorse tiny 38 155.58 Ra to eee 5 2 


Baleen (pale yellow or cream-colour), 
longest blade) i i4ss.5h Gans See eee 


[This is most likely the Physalus antarcticus of my ‘ Cata- 
logue of Seals and Whales,’ established upon some yellowish 
baleen imported from New Zealand.—J. EK. G.] 


225 


BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTICES. 


Index to the Fossil Remains of Aves, Ornithosauria, and Reptilia, 
from the Secondary System of Strata, arranged in the Woodwardian 
Museum of the University of Cambridge. By H. G. Suxtery, of 
St. John’s College, Cambridge. With a Prefatory Notice by the 
Rev. A. Sepewicx, LL.D. &. &. Pp. 143, 8vo. Cambridge and 
London, 1869. 


Tue Woodwardian Museum holds a high place among Geological 
Institutions. It has been enriched by the careful gatherings and 
liberal gifts of the venerable Woodwardian Professor, and by the 
active cooperation and liberality of many University men and others 
following so good an example. It is well housed and cared for by 
the University and the Professor, as the illustrative material of the 
Cambridge school of Geology ; and the well printed volume before us 
not only enhances the usefulness of the museum to students, but, 
as a classificatory catalogue of its precious collection of Reptilian 
remains, carefully allocated and critically determined, it supplies a 
standing-ground for herpetologists, whether working out their own 
views of the alliances of recent and fossil Reptiles, or following the 
plan of research indicated by Mr. Seeley’s proposed relationships of 
the numerous osseous relics of new or ill-understood genera and 
species. Mr. Seeley separates the Pterodactyles and their fellows 
from the Reptilia as “‘ Ornithosauria ” (Pterosauria), and regards the 
Birds as an intermediate group. His views on the Pterodactyles are 
published in the ‘ Annals of Nat. Hist.,’ and the specimens which he 
has already illustrated and described are indicated in this catalogue. 
Very many specimens described and figured by Professor Owen in 
the monographs of the Palseontographical Society are in this collec- 
tion and are duly noted. 

From the several tables in the List of Contents, pp. xi—xxiii, the 
reader gathers much information; thus there are:—1. The “ Table 
of the Distribution of the large Groups of Animals in the Secondary 
Strata,” as far as the mass of material in the Cambridge collection 
shows. 2. “Table of Secondary Strata, showing the larger Groups 
of Animals which they contain,” as illustrated by the same collection ; 
and it is rich in these osseous fossils from the Chalk, the Cambridge 
Upper Greensand, Gault, Potton Sands, Wealden Series, Purbeck 
Series, Portland Stone, Kimmeridge Clay, Coral-rag and Ampthill 
Clay, Oxford Clay, Great Oolite, and Lias. 3. “ An approximate 
List of the Species included in the catalogue, with provisional 
names for new species and reference to the specimens on which 
they are founded, and to the pages of the Index in which they 
are described.” These are arranged according to the geological for- 
mations. Thus from the Chalk we find one new species of Ichthyo- 
saurus ; from the Upper Greensand seventeen new species of a new 
Pterosaurian genus (Ptenodactylus), which comprises some of Owen’s 
Pterodactyli, whilst another, accompanied by two new species, falls 
into Seeley’s new Ornithocheirus. Enaliornis is'a new bird-genus 


226 Bibliographical Notices. 


from the same formation. Three new species fall to Huxley’s 
Acanthopholis, one of the Dinosaurs. Macrosawrus is a new Dinosaur. 
Four new species are added to the Ichthyosaurs. There is a new 
species of Crocodile ; seven new Plesiosaurs ; three new Steneosaurs. 
A new Chelonian genus (/thinochelys) involves one of Owen’s Che- 
lones, and has sixteen species besides; and Trachydermochelys is 
another new genus from this exceedingly rich deposit of the remains 
of Mesozoic life. 

A new Lguanodon (Phillipsiz) from the Wealden is indicated. A 
new Pterodactylus and four new species of Pleurosternon are added 
from Purbeck. The Kimmeridge Clay yields a new terrestrial 
reptile (Gigantosaurus megalonyx), two new Ichthyosaurs, a new 
Dakosaur, two new Plesiosaurs, and a new Chelonian (Knalio- 
chelys); and pages 102-105 are devoted to a critical examination 
of some vertebra from the Kimmeridge Clay, that lead Mr. Seeley 
to refer Owen’s Plesiosaurus brachyspondylus and Pl. brachydeirus 
both to Pliosaurus. Lastly, the new genus Cryptosaurus and some 
new species of [chthyosaur, Pliosaur, Plesiosaur, and Steneosaur come 
from the Oxford Clay. 

Great care has been taken in the preparation and production of 
this valuable catalogue*. The Prefatory Note by the reverend Wood- 
wardian Curator and Professor shows his hearty earnestness in his 
work,—the pleasurable reminiscences of his collecting-days and 
fellow workers in years gone by,—his no less cordial appreciation of 
the researches and labours of the younger men who come and go with 
the tides of university life,—and his warm recognition of Mr. Seeley’s 
zealous and patient study, some of the results of which are so con- 
spicuously shown in this well-arranged and richly suggestive 
catalogue. 

Professor Sedgwick intimates that other catalogues are in progress, 
and among them a more detailed catalogue of the Reptilian remains. 
It is by such adjuncts that a museum is made of value to students ; 
and already the Woodwardian Professor has made great progress to 
this end, both with the catalogue before us and the magnificent work 
by himself and M‘Coy on the British Paleozoic Fossils in the Cam- 
bridge Museum, published in 1852. 


Mémoire sux les Ascoboles. Par M. E. Bouprpr. (Annales des 
Sciences Naturelles, cinquicme série, tome x. 1868.) 


M. Boudier has published an interesting account of the genus 
Ascobolus in the ‘ Annales des Sciences Naturelles’ for 1868. It is 
the first time that that genus has been treated monographically, 
with the accompaniment of carefully drawn coloured figures, as well 
of the plants as seen by the unassisted eye, and slightly magnified, 
as of their fructification viewed under the higher powers of the 
microscope. M. Boudier traces the history of the genus from the 


* By printer's error, probably, procelous and procelian are misspelt at 
pages 45 and 80. 


Bibliographical Notices. 227. 


time when Persoon described three species down to that when 
MM. Crouan added fourteen to those then known, in a paper in the 
‘ Annales des Sciences’ for 1857, and more recently five others in 
their ‘ Florule du Finisterre ;’ and Dr. Nylander carried on the num- 
ber to forty-six in his ‘Observationes circa Pezizas Fennie.’ The 
Ascoboli, as is well known, derive their name from the fact of their 
projecting their asci above the surface of the hymenium at the time 
when the sporidia approach maturity. M. Boudier retains this 
character as common to several genera into which he divides the 
Ascoboli as hitherto constituted; he then proceeds to trace their 
development from an early period, describing the young conceptacles, 
their asci, and paraphyses, and, lastly, the sporidia. He attributes 
the projection of their asci above the hymenial surface to the action 
of endosmose, by which they absorb fluid from the surrounding me- 
dium, and from their elasticity are able to retain the accumulated 
liquid for some time, becoming gradually distended ; the space where 
they originally grew becomes at length too narrow for their increased 
bulk, and they are pushed up on the shoulders of the younger asci. 
They then eject their sporidia through a circular or subtriangular 
operculum at their summit. Being relieved of their contents, they 
again contract and partly resume their former position. Describing 
the sporidia of the genus Ascobolus, M. Boudier says that, when 
mature, they acquire an epispore of a waxy (not membranaceous) 
consistence, as is shown by the effect of friction between two glasses, 
when the epispore breaks up into a mass of shapeless granules. We 
would call attention here to the structure of the epispore of Ascobolus 
immersus, P., or A. macrosporus, Cr., as shown in the ‘ Annals of 
Natural History,’ ser. 3. vol. xv. pl. 17. fig. 339*, where the epi- 
spore, being carefully removed, not crushed and broken up, exhibits 
a resemblance to cellular tissue. M. Boudier considers the veins or 
rugulosities, that are so remarkable a feature in the sporidia of As- 
cobolus, to be clefts or depressions caused by the shrinking of the 
epispore, but thinks them of little value for specific distinction, 
from their variability in the same species. 

The account given of the sporidia, in their various phases, is 
complete and full of interest. In endeavouring to follow up the 
mode of their germination, M. Boudier observed only the mycelioid 
threads usual in other Fungi, but was unable to verify the fact 
asserted by M. Coémans, viz. that the threads give origin to conidia 
of two sorts—one in the form of a Torula, the other of a Penicillium. 
Penicillium glaucum did, indeed, appear amongst his crops of Asco- 
boli, but he states it to be of extraneous origin. And where plants 
so mysterious as Fungi in the mode of their reproduction are in 
question, great care and repeated observation are necessary before 
facts such as those alluded to ought to be admitted. Nor was M. 


* M. Boudier does not appear to have seen the paper by Messrs. 
Berkeley and Broome, in the ‘Annals of Natural History’ for April and 
May 1865, in which some species of Ascobolus are described that are 
omitted in his list. 


228 Bibliographical Notices. 


Boudier more fortunate in his endeavours to confirm the views of 
M. Voronin (Abhandlungen der Senckenbergischen naturforschenden 
Gesellschaft, 1865, pp. 333, 334); but he saw the organs named 
“scolécites” by M.Tulasne (Ann. Sci. Nat. sér.5. vol. vi. p. 211-220). 
He considers that the fertilization of the Ascoboli is still involved in 
much obscurity. 

In arranging his materials systematically, he regards the Ascoboli 
as a division of the Pezize characterized by asci furnished with 
round or subtriangular opercula projecting above the hymenium 
when nearly mature, and sporidia clothed with a waxy, coloured 
epispore—or hyaline, and then having a membranaceous one, not gra- 
nular within nor filled with oil-globules. He divides the old genus 
Ascobolus into two principal sections, consisting of the true, and the 
spurious or pezizoid species, deriving his characters from the organs 
of fructification :—the genuine, with coloured sporidia and projecting 
asci; the spurious, having hyaline sporidia and asci generally little 
exserted, and consequently an hymenial surface only slightly papil- 
late. These two sections are distributed into six genera, viz. Ange- 
lina, Ascobolus, Saccobolus, Thecotheius, Ryparobius, and Ascophanus. 
The first contains only Ascobolus conglomeratus, Schwein. The last 
five are distinguished by the shape and position of the paraphyses 
and asci, and the nature and arrangement of the sporidia. The 
characters essential to the group M. Boudier considers to be an 
’ hymenium papillate with projecting, coloured, or hyaline asci, which 
open by an apical, round or subtriangular operculum, and sporidia 
rimose, with a coloured epispore, or with a membranaceous one, and 
then hyaline, not granular within, with a single nucleus, and with- 
out oil-globules. The author is thus compelled to exclude certain 
species, as Ascobolus pulcherrimus, Cr., Ascobolus Crouani, Cooke, 
and others. .A. Crowani, Cooke, is referred to the section Humaria 
of the Pezize, on account of the globules present in the sporidia ; 
but a reference to the figure of the fruit in vol. xxiv. of the ‘ Lin- 
nean Transactions,’ p. 495, pl. 51, shows that the globules in ques- 
tion become eventually reticulations, or, at least, that they are not 
visible in the mature state of the sporidia. Nor is it very evident 
wherein Ascobolus testaceus, Wallr., differs from Ascophanus carneus, 
Boud., pl. 12. fig. 38. The genus <Ascobolus is restricted to those 
species with much-exserted asci, conspicuous for their dark tips 
(from the colour of the sporidia) above the rest of the hymenium, 
opening by a round and umbonate operculum, and enclosing eight 
longitudinally rimose, free sporidia, which are either naked or ad- 
herent laterally to a membrane, or each enclosed separately and 
then subaggregate or easily separating, and paraphyses slender and 
longer than the asci. 

The following species are included :—Ascobolus lignatilis, A. &8., 
A. Crowani, Boud. (the name haying been given to A. miniatus, Cr., 
by Mr. Cooke, it adds to the confusion to have it again applied to 
another species); A. denudatus, Fr.; A. viridis, Currey; A. furfu- 
vaceus, P.; A. vinosus, Berk. ; A. cubensis, B. & C.; A. wrugineus, 
Fr.; A. glaber, P. (this species has occurred to us on rabbits’ dung 


Bibliographical Notices. 229 


only—a habitat not recorded by M. Boudier ; his plant seems never- 
theless to be identical with our own. Unfortunately, M. Boudier 
does not give measurements of the sporidia, neglecting Dr. Nylander’s 
advice in his treatise om the Pezizze of Finmark, and thus depriving 
botanists of one valuable means of identification); A. Leveillez, 
Boud. ; A. porphyrosporus, Fr. (is this species really distinct from 
A. immersus, P.? The description by Fries accords in many re- 
spects with that of A. macrosporus, Cr., or A. immersus, P.). 

The genus Saccobolus has an hymenium dotted with black gra- 
nules—the tips of the asci, which are less exserted than in Ascobolus. 
The paraphyses are equal in length to the asci. Asci short, sub- 
quadrate above and subcuneate below; operculum subtriangular, 
without an umbo. Sporidia eight, having a smooth or slightly and 
transversely rimose epispore, enclosed in a common membrane. 
The following species are included :—Saccobolus Kerverni, Boud. ; 
S. violascens, Boud.; S. neglectus, Boud. (this species is very near if 
not identical with Ascobolus depauperatus, B. & Br., Ann. Nat. Hist. 
ser. 3. vol. xy. p. 448, t. 14. fig. 6); S. globulifer, Boud. 

The following Ascoboli of various authors are not incorporated in 
M.Boudier’s genera, from want of clearness in their characters :— 
A. sphericus, Preuss.; A. Daldinanus, De Not.; A. rufo-pallidus, 
Karst.; A. lapponicus, Karst. The Ascoboli spurit of M. Boudier 
follow. Thecotheius, having an erumpent hymenium, rough with 
crystalline prominences (the tips of the much-exserted asci), filled 
with hyaline sporidia ; T'hecotheius Pelletieri, Boud., the only species. 
Ryparobius has a very minute receptacle, few paraphyses, and large 
many-spored asci, opening by a large convex operculum not much 
exserted: Ryparobius brunneus, Boud., R. Cookei, Boud., R. fe- 
linus, Boud., BR. dubius, Boud., and R. myriosporus, Boud., consti- 
tute the species of this genus. The genus Ascophanus follows, with 
an hymenium papillate with crystals from the slightly exserted asci, 
equalling the paraphyses in length, and enclosing eight, or in one 
species sixteen, ovate-oblong, hyaline sporidia. The species are :— 
Ascophanus minutissimus, Boud.; A. Coémansii, Boud., which seems 
not to differ from Ascobolus microsporus, B. & Br. 1. c. p. 449, except 
in the colour of the mature sporidia; (we may observe that Ascobolus 
pilosus, Boud., or A. ciliatus of some writers, has sporidia of a dark 
violet-colour when mature, which M. Boudier does not appear to 
have noticed, as it would exclude it from his genus Ascophanus ;) 
A. granuliformis, Boud.; A. argenteus, Boud.; A. vicinus, Boud. ; 
A, ochraceus, Boud.; A. seadecemsporus, Boud.; A. aurora, Boud. ; 
A. cinereus, Boud.; A. carneus, Boud., which comes very near to 
Ascobolus testaceus, Wall.; A. saccharinus, Boud.; A. difformis, 
Boud., synonymous with Ascobolus testaceus, Karst., and possibly 
identical, M. Boudier thinks, with Ascobolus saccharinus, Currey ; 
A. papillatus, Boud.; A. ciliatus, Boud.; and A. pilosus, Boud. 
Among spurious and doubtful Ascoboli is placed A. miniatus, 
Preuss. And excluded species follow, viz.:—A. pulcherrimus, Cr., 
doubtfully referred to Peziza subhirsuta or P. stercorea; A. insignis, 
Cr., referred to the same group of Pezize; A. Persoonii, Cr., re- 


230 Miscellaneous. 


ferred to Peziza, section Humaria; A. Crechqueraultii, Cr., also 
placed in Humaria ; A. Crowani, Cooke, placed in the same section 
on account of its granular sporidia, but which, as indicated above, is 
only the immature condition, and, from its reticulated sporidia, should 
probably be placed in a new genus; A. Guernisaci, Cr., not placed, 
but excluded from Ascoboli on account of its non-prominent asci, ec. ; 
A, Brassice, Cr., repudiated, owing to its granular sporidia, although 
they are violet-coloured ; A. microscopicus, Cr., not placed; A. cocci- 
neus, Cr., referred, in part, to Peziza convexula, P.; A. Leveillei, Cr., 
a doubtful Ryparobius. Peziza cunicularia, Boud., will hereafter, 
as the author thinks, constitute a new genus. Ascobolus trifolii, 
Bivona, is united with Phacidium. A. atrovirens, Nees, is Peziza 
atrovirens, P, A. Burcardia, Martius, is Bulgaria globosa. A. coro- 
natus, Schum., is Phacidium coronatum, Fr. A. inquinans, Nees, is 
Bulgaria inquinans, Fr. A. rhizophorus, Spr., is Rhizina levigata, 
Fr. <A. sarcoides, Nees, is Bulgaria sarcoides, Fr. A. testaceus, 
Wallr., is Peziza testacea, Mougt. A. vitis, Wallr., is Peziza albo- 
violascens, A. &S., and also Cyphella Curreyi, B. & Br. 

Of the genus Ascobolus, as limited by M. Boudier, we have two 
new species, A. Crowant, Boud., and A. Leveillei, Boud. ; of Sacco- 
bolus three—S. violaceus, Boud., S. neglectus, Boud., and S. globuli- 
fer, Boud.; of Ryparobius three—R, brunneus, Boud., R. felinus, 
Boud., and &. dubius, Boud.; of Ascophanus two—A. minutissimus, 
Boud., and A. vicinus, Boud.: in all, ten new species, which, added 
to those included by various authors in the old genus Ascobolus, 
bring up the number of species to forty-three, besides nine belonging 
to other genera, of some of which the true position has not yet been 
determined. 

M. Boudier’s figures are very faithful, so far as we are acquainted 
with the species described, and are carefully and artistically exe- 
cuted ; and the whole paper is essential to all who wish to become 
acquainted with these plants. It is to be regretted that the author 
has not availed himself of the characters offered by the micrometer ; 
we would notwithstanding recommend all those who take up myco- 
logy to procure the treatise without delay. 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


On the Genus Asterostoma, belonging to the Family Echinocorydee. 
By M. G. Corrnav. 


Amone the very interesting fossils from the island of Cuba sent 
to Paris for the Exhibition of 1867, by MM. Fernandez de Castro and 
Jimeno Francisco of Matanzas, there were two species of Echinida 
belonging to the genus Asterostoma, Agassiz. These Echinida, which 
are very remarkable for their form and the totality of their characters, 
thanks to the kindness of M. Jimeno, to whom they belonged, now 
form part of my collection; and I have been able, by examining 


Miscellaneous. 2455 | 


them at leisure, to complete the diagnosis of the genus and determine 
the place which this curious type should occupy in the series. 

Before the Exhibition of 1867, only a single specimen of Astero- 
stoma, from Lamarck’s eollection, was known. In 1847 MM. Agassiz 
and Desor, in the ‘ Catalogue raisonné des Echinides,’ had made of 
this unique specimen the type of the genus Asterostoma, and given 
the species the name of ewxcentricum. Although noticing that this 
genus approaches Hehinocorys (Ananchytes, Lamk.) and that the 
anterior ambulacral area is formed of smaller pores than the paired 
ambulacral areas, MM. Agassiz and Desor place the genus Astero- 
stoma at the end of the family Cassidulide, not far from Conoclypeus. 
In 1865 D’Orbigny described the genus Asterostoma and the only 
species which it then contained. Because the anterior ambulacral 
area differed from the others, not only in its form but also in the 
structure of its pores, the author of the ‘ Paléontologie Francaise,’ 
justly considering this organic character very important, thought that 
the genus must be placed among the Spatangide, in which, as is 
well known, the anterior ambulacral area is never like the others. 

Some years later, M. Desor, in the ‘ Synopsis des Echinides fossiles,’ 
had again to turn his attention to Asterostoma. That eminent natura- 
list discusses and combats the opinion of D’Orbigny: the position of 
the peristome, which is almost central in Asterostoma, the strongly 
marked furrows which surround it, and of which no trace exists in the 
true Spatangide, and the structure of the apical apparatus, which, 
from the impression left at the apex of the ambulacral areas, appeared 
to affect an elongated form, led M. Desor to remove the genus As- 
terostoma from the Spatangide ; and it appeared to him much more 
natural to unite it with the Galeritide, near Desorella and Pachy- 
clypeus, Which, as he says, combine with a central and angular 
peristome an elongated apical apparatus. 

The two new species of Asterostoma which I have just studied, 
from the fine preservation of some of their essential organs (the 
paired and anterior ambulacral areas, the peristome, the apical ap- 
paratus, &c.), whilst enabling me to complete the diagnosis of the 
genus, leave me in no doubt as to the place which it should occupy ; 
and I have no hesitation in ranging it in the family of the Echino- 
corydex, between Stenonia and Holaster. That important character 
upon which D’Orbigny dwelt, namely the difference of structure 
between the anterior ambulacral area and the others, is still more 
apparent and marked in our two new species. It is not only the 
ambulacral pores that are smaller and otherwise arranged in the 
anterior ambulacral area ; the poriferous plates themselves are higher 
and consequently much less numerous; and this clearly marked dif- 
ference gives to the upper surface a physiognomy which is certainly 
not that of the Echinobrisside and Echinoconide. M. Desor, to 
support his opinion, especially invoked the almost central position of 
the peristome and the deep furrows which converge into it. In the 
new Asterostomas from Cuba, the peristome is much more excentric 
in front, the ambulacral furrows which surround it, although still 


232 Miscellaneous. 


present, are less apparent and not so much produced, and the lower 
surface, in its general aspect, presents much resemblance to that of 
Holaster and Echinocorys. The apical apparatus is perfectly pre- 
served in one of our species (A. cubensis); it is not elongated, as M. 
Desor supposed, but compact and subcircular. 

Tosumup. The genus Asterostoma, by its general characters, the 
anterior ambulacral area different from the others, the subpetaloid 
paired ambulacral areas, the transverse peristome, which is most fre- 
quently very excentric in front, and the rounded periprocta, situated 
on the posterior surface above the ambitus, takes its place in the 
family of the Echinocorydez ; its compact apical apparatus, furnished 
behind with an angular complementary ‘plate, which penetrates to 
the centre of the apparatus, seems to approximate it to the true 
Spatangidee; but it must not be forgotten that if Hchinocorys, Holaster, 
and Cardiaster have an elongated apical apparatus, there is also 
among the Echinocorydex the genus Stenonia which, although very 
nearly allied to Hcehinocorys, has nevertheless a compact and sub- 
circular apical apparatus. 

The genus Asterostoma includes three species, which, although 
presenting numerous points of resemblance, are nevertheless per- 
fectly distinct :— 

Asterostoma excentricum, Agassiz. 
Jimenoi, Cotteau. 
cubensis, Cotteau. 


We do not know positively the deposit from which the species of 
Asterostoma are obtained. The specimen in the Paris Museum bears 
no indication of locality ; it is penetrated by a hard, compact, greyish 
limestone, which, according to D’Orbigny, indicates a bed older than 
the Tertiary formation, and may be Cretaceous. The specimens 
collected in Cuba by M. Jimeno are also derived from a hard, greyish 
rock; but this petrographic character is certainly not sufficient to refer 
them to the Cretaceous formation. Zoological characters furnish more 
conclusive arguments. The family Echinocorydez, in which I have 
placed Asterostoma, has hitherto included only exclusively Cretaceous 
genera ; and, on the other hand, the genus Asterostoma, considered in 
itself, departs in its general characters from all the Tertiary or living 
types that we know. It may, therefore, probably belong to the 
Cretaceous formation; but these are only presumptions, and to obtain 
more certainty we must wait for the stratigraphical information for 
which I have asked M. Jimeno.— Comptes Rendus, February 7, 1870, 
tome lxx. pp. 271-273. 


Sars Founp. 


The appeal for assistance to the family of the late Professor Sars 
has been most satisfactorily responded to here and in France; and 
the subscription lists comprise the names of all the principal zoolo- 
gists and geologists, as will be seen by our advertising columns as 
regards this country. The French list (including Belgium) amounts 
to about 5000 francs, or-£200 of our money. 


THE ANNALS. 


AND 


MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 


[FOURTH SERIES.] 


No. 28. APRIL 1870. 


XXIV.—On the Structure and Development of the Antheridium 
an Ferns. By Dr. L. Kny*, 


[Plate VI.] 


Tue structure of the antheridium ‘of Ferns, notwithstanding 
its great simplicity, has experienced the most various inter- 
pretations. 

Niigeli, the discoverer of the organ, describes it t as a gland- 
like structure, which is frequently apparently unicellular, but 
generally presents distinctly the form of a sac surrounded by 
a simple cell-layer, in the interior of which the mother cells 
of the spiral filaments are produced. It originates from one 
mother cell. After this has projected itself above its neigh- 
bours, it first of all divides by a horizontal septum. This first 
septum is followed in the outer cell by a second, parallel to it. 
The same process may be repeated once or twice in the suc- 
cessive outer cells. By these divisions a Conferva-like ccl- 
lular filament of from two to five cells is produced. Tach 
joint becomes broken up into a central cell with four peri- 
pheral cells surrounding it. The peripheral cells of all the 
successive joints form four perpendicular rows, and combine 
to form a sac-like envelope; the central “spaces” together 
represent a ‘canal,’ in which the mother cells of the spiral 
filaments are produced. ‘This is closed below by the cell of 
the prothallium to which it is attached, and above by the four 
cells of the last jot, which have not completely separated 
from each other. The apical and basal joints sometimes re- 
main undivided. 

When the mother cells of the spiral filaments appear to be 


* Translated by W. S. Dallas, F.L.S., from the ‘Monatsbericht der 
KGn. preuss. Akad. der Wiss. zu Berlin,’ May 1869, pp. 416-431. 
+ Zeitschr. fiir wissenschaftl. Botanik, Bd. 1. (1844) p. 168 et seqq., Taf. 4. 


Ann, & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 4. Vol. v. 16 


234 Dr. L. Kny on the Structure and 


enclosed merely by a simple or double membrane, this, ac- 
cording to Nigeli, is always the consequence of the prepon- 
derant increase of volume of the contents of the antheridium, 
and of a compression of the enveloping cells thereby produced. 
After the evacuation of the spiral filaments, these cells again 
extend themselves. 

Count Leszezyc-Suminski* states that a free cell is pro- 
duced in the interior of the mother cell of the antheridium as 
this is arching itself up above its neighbours, and that the 
contents of this, a homogeneous mucilage, show limpid glo- 
bules or distinct nuclei furnished with nuclear corpuscles. As 
soon as this cell has advanced in its growth so far as to fill 
the walls of the original projection, it shuts itself off from the 
cells of the prothallium. Frequently a third, flattened cell is 
formed between the two; this serves as the bearer of the one- 
celled antheridium. The mother cells of the spiral filaments 
are produced within this by free cell formation. Count 
Leszezyc-Suminski, indeed, also figures (Taf. 2. fig. 15) an 
antheridium with a distinct cellular envelope; but he describes 
this, in the explanation of his figures, as a morbid state. 

Wigandf speaks very decidedly in favour of the unicellu- 
larity of the antheridia of ferns, which he mvestigated in 
several species, some of which, however, are not exactly de- 
fined. According to him, they are frequently produced by the 
direct metamorphosis of cells of the prothallium, without any 
previous separation of an anterior elevated portion from the 
great mass of the cells; but usually the latter occurs. How 
the mother cells of the spiral filaments originate, whether by 
division or free cell formation, Wigand leaves undecided. 

Schachtt never found the antheridia unicellular in the spe- 
cies investigated by him (Pterts serrulata, Asplenium Petrarce, 
Adiantum formosum, and Aspidium violaceum); the nucleus 
was always enveloped by a single layer of limpid cells. 
In his adhesion to Schleiden’s opinion of the general occur- 
rence of free cell formation, he supposes these cells of the wall 
to be produced as vesicles in the interior of the mother cell. 
One of them is assumed to become the primitive mother cell 
of the cells of the spiral filaments, which latter are also pro- 
duced by free cell formation. At the conclusion of his de- 
scription, Schacht himself expresses some doubt as to the 
accuracy of his observations. 


* Zur Entwickelungsgeschichte der Farrnkriéuter (1848), p. 10. 
+ Botan. Zeitung, 1849, p. 22. 
{ “ Beitrag zur Entwickelungsgeschichte der Farrnkriuter,” Linnea 
2 =e ome} b) ? 
1849, Bd. xxii. p. 758 et segg. 


Development of the Antheridium in Ferns. 235. 


Thuret* conceived the structure of the antheridia quite dif- 
ferently from all previous observers, and, as we shall soon see, 
was the first to take a correct view of them. In most Poly- 
podiacex they consist, according to him, of three superimposed 
cells—a peduncular cell, which attaches the organ to the pro- 
thallium, an annular cell, which encloses the mother cells of 
the spermatozoids all round, and a terminal opercular cell. 
In many cases the inner space of the antheridium reaches 
down to the surface of the prothallium, so that the basal cell 
also becomes an annular cell. How these annular cells are 
produced, whether they are formed as such at once, or owe 
their origin to the coalescence of several cells, is a question 
which Thuret leaves untouched. 

Mercklint, who, of all the observers hitherto mentioned, 
had the most abundant material at his disposal, follows Nig eli 
essentially 1 in the interpretation of his observations, and rejects 
Thuret’s conception (p.18); whilst Mettenius{ unconditionally 
agrees with the latter, and refers only to Thuret with regard 
to the structure of the antheridium. 

According to Hofmeister §, there occurs in the mother cell 
of the antheridium a division by an inclined partition, either 
immediately or after one or (1 rarely) more divisions have taken 
place in it by transverse septa. ‘The newly formed cell of the 
second degree divides at once by a radial longitudinal wall. 
After a sinele repetition of the division of the apical cell by a 
septum inclined in an opposite direction, the longitudinal 
growth of the antheridium ceases. The second cell of the 
second degree is also divided by a radial septum into two 

narts, of the form of quadrants of a cylinder. Next one of the 
cells of the third degree is divided by a septum parallel to the 
longitudinal axis of the organ, and cutting the side walls at 
an angle of 45°. The antheridium now forms a semiglobular 
cellular body, consisting of a four-sided central cell filled with 
granular plasma, supported by one cylindrical or two semi- 
cylindrical cells, ‘enveloped by four cells of the form of seg- 
ments of a cylinder, and covered by a cell of the form of the 
seement of a sphere..... The cells of the antheridium which 
embrace the central one increase no further. The central 
cell, on the other hand, after considerably increasing in size, 
in consequence of which the cells surrounding it are ‘flattened 


* “Sur les Anthéridies des Fougéres,” Ann. Se. Nat. sér, 3. tome xi. 
(1849) p. 7. . 

+ Beobachtungen an dem Prothallium der Farrnkriiuter (1850), p. 12 
et seqq. 

{ Beitrage zur Botanik (1850), p. 22. 

§ Vergleichende adaestichenyos, &e, (1851) p. 79. 


3: 


236 Dr. L. Kny on the Structure and 


into a tabular form, becomes converted by a series of bisections 
into a globular group of cubical cells. 

Hentrey*, who does not appear to have been acquainted 
with Thuret’s work, not only gives a description of the struc- 
ture of the antheridia agreeing with his throughout, but goes 
a step further, and endeavours to ascertain the mode of pro- 
duction of the annular cells. According to his observations, 
there is formed in the mother cell of the antheridium, either 
immediately or only after the separation of a basal cell has 
taken place, an erect ring-like partition, which makes its 
appearance simultaneously at all points. ‘The rudimentary 
antheridium now consists of an inner cylindrical cell and a 
hollow cylindrical cell enclosing this. A horizontal septum 
applies itself to the upper part of the annular partition; and 
by this the opercular cell, which is convex above, is separated 
from the central cell. Ifthe latter (or the products of its divi- 
sion) be subsequently enclosed by ¢wo annular cells, these, 
according to Henfrey, are always produced by the division of 
the first formed annular cell by means of a septum running 
round horizontally. 

It will appear from what follows that my observations do 
not confirm the developmental history given by Henfrey. 

Wigand, in a second memoir, in continuation of his pre- 
vious communication, gives comparative observations upon 
the structure of the antheridium in many species of ferns. 
For a certain number of cases he maintains his previous opi- 
nion of the unicellularity of the entire organ. In most spe- 
cies he admits the existence of a proper antheridial wall, 
which embraces the mother cells of the spermatozoids either 
on all sides or only in part. The closed rings, the presence 
of which did not escape him, are described by him as “ circles 
of peripheral cells.” The number of cells united to form a 
circle is, according to him, usually four, sometimes five or six 
(1. c. p. 46). 

Hofmeister { affirms, in opposition to Henfrey, that he 
had repeatedly convinced himself of the correctness of his 
previous statements upon the developmental history. Hollow 
cylindrical cells are certainly recognizable in nearly mature 
and in emptied antheridia; but these, he says, are produced by 
the lateral fusion of several cells by the absorption of their 
transverse partitions. 


* “On the Development of Ferns from their Spores,” Trans. Linn. Soe. 
vol. xxi. p. 121. 

+ “ Weitere Beobachtungen iiber die Keimungsgeschichte der Farrn,” 
Botan. Untersuch. 1854, p, 44 et segq. 

{ Beitriige zur Kenntniss der Gefiisskryptogamen, ii. p. 604, note, 


Development of the Antheridium in Ferns. 2ar 


The last explanation of the development of the fern-anthe- 
ridium which Hofmeister gives, in the English edition of his 
‘ Vergleichende Untersuchungen’*, does not differ essentially 
from his former one. He says, “The analogy to be derived 
from the process of development of the antheridia of the Mus- 
cinex renders it probable that the large central cell is formed 
by the production of an excentrical, inclined, longitudinal 
septum in the young antheridium, followed by the production 
of another excentrical septum cutting the latter at right angles, 
and the subsequent formation of a longitudinal septum cutting 
both the above at an angle of 45°, such formation taking place 
after the apical cell of the antheridium has been isolated by a 
strongly inclined, almost horizontal septum cutting the primary 
longitudinal septum. When the central cell is surrounded by 
two zones of enveloping cells, it is manifest that the two zones 
originate in the transverse division of the primary single zone.” 

Lastly, Strassburger+ has occupied himself with the present 
subject. In Pterts serrulata, according to him, the mother 
cell of the antheridium is divided first of all by two oppositely 
inclined septa, which are set obliquely upon the bottom of the 
antheridium and cut its side walls nearly at their summit. 
“These first two septa are soon followed respectively by two 
other opposite ones, cutting them at an angle of 45°. All 
these four septa are strongly inclined together towards the 
base of the antheridium, without, however, absolutely meeting 
there ; and in this way a central quadrangular space is cut off, 
which is widened above in a funnel-like form. The upper 
part of the antheridium is still unicellular; but a number of 
divisions soon occur in it. First of all, four upper lateral cells 
are produced in exactly the same way as the inferior ones ; 
they are set upon these inferior ones, and inclined together 
towards the apex of the antheridium. Finally, between these 
upper lateral cells an opercular cell, of the form of the seg- 
ment of a sphere, is separated from the vertex of the antheri- 
dium. In this way a cellular body is formed, consisting of a 
central cell, eight lateral cells, and an opercular cell. The 
central cell, seen from above, is quadrangular, bellied out in 
the middle of its height, gradually diminished towards its ex- 
tremities, especially the lower one, and it becomes the primi- 
tive mother cell of the spermatozoids. It contains an abun- 
dance of protoplasm and a distinct cell-nucleus, whilst the 
lateral cells as yet contain only a few chlorophyll-grains.” 


* On the Germination, Development, and Fructification of the higher 
Cryptogamia (London, 1862), p. 186. 

t “Die Befruchtung bei den Farrnkrautern,” Mém, de l’Acad. de 
St. Pétersh. 1868, p. 2. 


238 Dr. L. Kny on the Structure and 


My own investigations as yet relate only to a few species. 
Nevertheless, to judge from the statements and pictorial re- 
presentations contained in the literature of the subject, the 
most important differences in the structure of the antheridium 
are represented by them. In a short time I hope to,be able to 
complete my observations upon most of the genera of Filices. 
It scarcely needs to be mentioned that I have not obtained the 
materials for my investigation from the impure cultivated 
forms of the fern-houses, but that the sowings have been made 
specially for my purposes, and carefully protected from foreign 
interlopers. 

Aneimia hirta possesses antheridia which are remarkable 
for their considerable size and simple structure. In the ma- 
ture state (Pl. VI. fig. 5) they consist of a depressed cylindrical 
stalk cell, a comparatively elevated annular cell set upon this, 
in which no indication of a longitudinal septum is visible, and 
a low opercular cell in the form of the segment of a sphere. 
The inner cavity enclosed by the three cells is filled by the 
special mother cells of the spermatozoids. 

On weakly prothallia growing very close together they 
spring in about equal abundance from the underside of the 
leafy surface and from the margin. In the last-mentioned 
position their development is easily ascertained by the com- 
parison of different stages. 

The youngest observed rudiments, which scarcely projected 
as hemispheres above the margin (fig. 1), and im the fresh 
state appeared to be uniformly filled with turbid protoplasm, 
proved, on closer examination, to be not only separated from 
the marginal cell by a septum, but even already to consist of 
three cells. The lower, peduncular cell, which is greatly 
curved inwards, is bounded by two parallel walls, of which 
the superior is the youngest. Upon this follows a watch- 
glass-shaped septum curved outwards in a circle concentric 
with the peripheral boundary of the peduncular cell, cutting 
off an inner cell of the form of a biconvex lens from a shallow 
bell-shaped cell which covers it. Whilst the peduncular cell 
searcely becomes perceptibly elongated, the two other cells 
both become strongly arched outwards. At the same time the 
septum separating them long remains very delicate, so that it 
eludes direct observation (fig. 2@); when the prothallium is 
treated with solution of potash and muriatic acid, it makes its 
appearance quite distinctly (fig.26). About the time when 
the inner cell has acquired a hemispherical form, there is pro- 
duced in the bell-shaped cell covering it a funnel-shapec 
septum widening upwards, which is applied both to the inner 
and outer wall, in a closed circle. Its formation appears to be 


Development of the Antheridium in Ferns. 239 


perfectly simultaneous. By it the opercular cell is separated 
from the hollow cylindrical enveloping cell (ring cell). 

In each of the four cells of which the antheridium is com- 
posed in this state of development, a nucleus is distinctly re- 
cognizable. In the opercular cell it is applied to the lower 
septum, and is surrounded by numerous chlorophyll-grains ; 
in the ring cell it clings to the inner wall on one side; in the 
central cell it occupies exactly a middle position, and, on ac- 
count of the abundance of chlorophyll and protoplasm, appears 
only as a lighter spot. 

The central and ring cells grow predominantly in length 
and less in circumference. At the same time the inclination 
of the septum which separates the latter from the opercular 
cell becomes somewhat less. Whilst all the other cells remain 
undivided, the central cell is broken up, by a number of suc- 
cessive divisions, into the special mother cells of the sperma- 
tozoids. The position of the septa with regard to the longi- 
tudinal axis of the organ and to each other is now rather 
irregular, as may be seen from figs. 3 & 4. 

The cells of the last generation round themselves off from 
each other, in the manner characteristic of the special mother 
cells, until they become completely isolated. Within the deli- 
cate cellulose membrane there is first a layer of hyaline proto- 
plasm; towards the middle numerous granules are imbedded 
in the plasma. The evacuation of the special mother cells 
always takes place through an irregular rupture of the oper- 
cular cell. The torn fragments of the membrane of this shrink 
together, and soon become unrecognizable. The gradual ap- 
pearance of the cellular contents is accompanied by a consider- 
able extension of the basal cell and ring cell (Pl. VI. fig. 6). 
This renders it probable that the opening of the antheridium 
is effected chiefly by the turgescence of these two cells. In 
the membrane of the ring-cell, which at the same time becomes 
much shortened, folds are formed in larger or smaller number, 
which, when seen from above, do not usually extend beyond 
half the thickness of the ring (fig. 7), but in a side view some- 
times present a deceptive resemblance to true septa. I suppose 
that these have played a great part in the erroneous repre- 
sentations of the structure and development of the antheridium 
of ferns. ‘That the ring cell is not, as supposed by several of 
the observers above mentioned, produced by the amalgamation 
of four or more originally separate peripheral cells, but is a 
ring cell from its first foundation, 1s perfectly evident from 
the constant presence of only one nucleus. Hven after evacua- 
tion has taken place, this remains for some time distinctly 


recognizable (fig. 6). 


240 Dr. L. Kny on the Structure and 


The antheridia of Ceratopteris thalictroides (figs. 8-10) are 
at the first glance very dissimilar to those of Anemia. On 
closer examination, it appears that the difference lies more in 
the dimensions of the individual parts than in any divergence 
of structure. Most of the antheridia here originate from mar- 
ginal cells of the prothallium ; only a few are developed upon 
the lower surface of the frond. In the former, the only one 
which I have closely traced, the divisions of the mother cell 
are completed at a period when it scarcely projects perceptibly 
above its neighbours. 

The first septum is usually unsymmetrical and strongly 
curved. It is attached on the one side to the free outer wall 
of the mother cell, and on the other to one of the side walls 
which separate this from the neighbouring cells. The lower 
cell thus cut off of course extends only on one side to the free 
margin of the prothallium (figs. 9a, 10). Unfortunately I have 
no direct observation of the next step in division. From the 
mature state, in conjunction with the undoubtedly ascertained 
process of development in Anemia hirta, I think I may con- 
clude that here also the first-formed wall is followed by a 
watchglass-shaped membrane, which separates an inner cell] 
of the form of a biconvex lens from an outer shallow bell- 
shaped cell. In the latter, as in Anevmia, a funnel-shaped 
septum widening upwards would then be produced, isolating 
the opercular cell from the ring cell. The latter here always 
remains short and at the same time slightly curved downwards. 
This, combined with the want of a true peduncular cell, is 
what chiefly causes the peculiar habit of the antheridium of 
Ceratopteris. 

Divergences from the structure just described but seldom 
occur. ‘Ihe commonest is, that the first septum attaches itself 
symmetrically to the two lateral walls (fig. 9) instead of only to 
one of them. Only in the rarest cases have I observed mature 
antheridia in which the separation of the ring cell and the 
opercular cell had been omitted, and in which, therefore, the 
special mother cells were enclosed in a lenticular space be- 
tween two cells. 

Asplenium alatum possesses antheridia in which the nucleus 
is usually enclosed by two superimposed ring cells (Pl. VI. 
figs. 14 &15). The operculum, as in Anetmia hirta and 
Ceratopteris thalictroides, is unicellular, A peduncular cell 
is not always present (figs. 11, 14, & 15). 

On the weakly prothallia examined by me (which had been 
much crowded during growth) the antheridia were developed 
chiefly on the surface of the frond, frequently in such abun- 
dance that every cell bore an antheridium. ‘They were pro- 


Development of the Antheridium in Ferns. 241 


duced less numerously on the marginal cells. Their develop- 
ment could be best traced on filiform adventitious shoots, of 
which each ramification, often, terminated with an anther idium 
(fig. 13). 

The youngest rudiments observed by me were hemispherical. 
The first septum that makes its appearance in them has the 
form of a funnel; it attaches itself to the flat basal surface, in 
a narrow circle concentric with the peripheral boundary of the 
latter, and widens upwards so as to strike (also in a closed 
circle) about the middle of the spherically arched outer wall 
(figs. 11,12). The lower (and at the same time the outer) of 
the two sister cells, which, even at its formation, possesses the 
form of a ring widened at the base and narrowed to an edge 
above, retains this essentially ; it is afterwards incapable of 
any further division. The other sister cell, which is conically 
narrowed at its lower end, distinctly exhibits a cell-nucleus in 
this lower part. Its 1 inerease in length takes place exclusively 
in its upper, free half. If a young antheridium in this stage 
of development, when the upper part begins to distinguish 
itself slightly, even in external contour, from the first annular 
enveloping cell (fig. 13 a), be treated with diluted solution of 
caustic potash, and, after being once washed, with muriatic 
acid, we observe a delicate divisional line, to which a cell- 
nucleus is applied both above and below. (fig. 136). This 
septum, which separates a superior shallow bell-shaped cell 
from the central cell (the primitive mother cell of the sperma- 
tozoids), applies itself on all sides to the upper margin of the 
first-produced funnel-shaped cell-wall, and is slightly curved 
upwards in the form of a meniscus. 

Simultaneously with the further longitudinal growth of the 
young antheridium, a stronger arching of this septum takes 
place. After it has become about parallel to the free outer 
wall, an annular wall, becoming slightly widened upwards in 
a funnel-shape, attaches itself almost at right angles to the 
upper surface at an equal distance from the vertex all round 
(fig. 14). 

By this means the bell-shaped cell is divided into an inferior 
ring cell and a superior opercular cell, the latter presenting the 
form of a truncated cone with its spherical basal surface turned 
upwards. With this the development of the antheridial enve- 
lope, in the great majority of cases, is concluded. Both the 
ring cells, as well as the opercular cell, show a nucleus, which 
is distinctly recognizable upon careful examination, Even 
after the evacuation of the antheridium, this is still retained 
for some time in the ring cells (fig. 17). 

It is only after the foundation of the antheridial envelope 


242 Dr. L. Kny on the Structure and 


that a series of divisions takes place in the central cell, leading 
to the formation of the special mother cells. The first septa 
are usually directed exactly in accordance with the longitudinal 
axis of the antheridium, and placed at right angles to each 
other in three directions; afterwards radial walls alternate 
several times with tangential ones. The cells of the last 
grade, the number of which is not constant, become rounded 
off from each other. Their very delicate membrane is followed, 
immediately within, by a hyaline plasma-zone; the central 
part of the contents is distinctly granular. 

The opening of the antheriditum is here also evidently 
effected by the turgescence of the two ring cells. After the 
opercular cell is irregularly ruptured, and the special mother 
cells are evacuated, these extend themselves inwards, at the 
same time becoming slightly shortened. By this means are 
formed radially perpendicular folds, which, when looked at 
laterally, often present a delusive resemblance to true septa in 
appearance*. Here also, as in Anedmia hirta, we may easily 
convince ourselves, by examination from above, that they do 
not attain the outer membrane. 

Exceptionally we sometimes observe antheridia with only 
one ring cell, This has then, so far as the mature state en- 
ables us to judge, exactly the same origin as the wpper ring 
cell in normal antheridia: it is the sister cell of the opercular 
cell. 

Rather more frequently antheridia with three ring cells are 
observed. The middle one, in this case, is probably formed 
by a funnel-shaped septum in the same way as the lower one. 
This was certainly the case in two abnormal antheridia, in 
which the second ring cell had attached itself laterally and 
obliquely to the lower one (fig. 16). 

Cibotium Schidet directly approaches Asplentum alatum, but 
shows some remarkable peculiarities. The lowest of the two 
ring cells, which are here present in the great majority of the 
antheridia, usually rests upon a basal cell which is only deve- 
loped on one side, and is then lower upon one side than on 
the other, whilst the upper ring cell is more regularly deve- 
loped (fig. 19). The opercular cell does not remain undivided, 
but is divided into two daughter cells of unequal size by a 
wall, which is perpendicular to the outer wall, but strongly 
convex towards the middle point of the cell. The larger cell 
is crescentiform, the smaller one elliptical, pointed at both 


* In two cases I believe I positively ascertained the presence of a single 
true longitudinal wall in one of the ring cells. I regard them as supple- 
mentary structures. As to the mode of their production, I can, unfortu- 
nately, say nothing further. 


Development of the Antheridium in Ferns. 243 


ends (fig. 18). In the smaller of the two sister cells a further 
division sometimes takes place. It is either divided into two 
equal parts by a wall perpendicular to the last-formed one, or 
an oppositely curved wall attaches itself on both sides to the 
first wall. ‘The operculum is then composed of a central and 
two peripheral cells. Rarely the second wall of the operculum 
is parallel to that first formed. 

At the opening of the antheridium the operculum is not ir- 
regularly ruptured as in Aneimia hirta, Ceratopterts thalic- 
trotdes, and Asplenium alatum, but the smaller cell, or, when 
it consists of three, one of the two smaller cells , 18 separated 
from its union with the neighbouring cells, and thrown back 
like a valve. 

The structure of the ring cells, so far as I could observe, is 
perfectly analogous to that described in Asplenium alatum ; 
here also the lower one is essentially different in its origin 
from the upper one. The lower one is cut off directly by a 
funnel-shaped septum from the primitive mother cell of the 
antheridium, whilst the upper one, with the operculum (which 
is afterwards pluricellular), is the product of division of a bell- 
shaped cell. 

The process of development of the antheridia of Osmunda 
regalis differs completely from the examples above described. 
Closed ring cells never occur init. The mother cell is first of all 
divided by an oblique wall, which is slightly concave inwards 
and is followed in the upper and larger of the two sister cells 
by a second wall inclined in the opposite direction; only in 
rare cases three successive walls are formed, and these then 
diverge at angles of 120°. Whilst the peripheral cells undergo 
no further division, in the inner and at the same time superior 
cell a septum, nearly perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of 
the antheridium and slightly concave below, is formed, and 
attaches itself to the first-formed septa on all sides. The 
central cell is then broken up by a series of divisions, in which 
no definite rule can be recognized, into the special mother cells 
of the spermatozoids ; the opercular cell is divided at the same 
time, by several walls running in the same direction across its 
vertex, into three or four cells, the outer contour of which 
usually becomes waved by subsequent extension. ‘They form 
the greater part of the wall of the antheridium*. 

The interest attaching to the facts above communicated 
goes far beyond the developmental history of the Ferns. As 
far as I know, cells in the form of closed rings have only been 
observed in the mature fronds of some species of Anetmia, 


* T shall give a more detailed account of the antheridia of Osmunda in 
a memoir which will shortly appear in Pringsheim’s ‘ Jahrbuch.’ 


244 = On the Structure of the Antheridium in Ferns. 


where they surround the pair of closing cells of the stomata. 
With regard to the mode of their formation, there is a still 
unsettled difference of opinion between Hildebrand* and 
Strassburgert; but both of them agree in thinking that the 
ring cells are not formed as such, but only acquire their pecu- 
liar form subsequently. ‘The antheridia of the Polypodiacez 
and Schizeacex consequently present the first example of a 
direct production of ring cells by the formation of funnel-shaped 
septa; they show at the same time that this process, which 
has hitherto been quite isolated in the vegetable kingdom, 
admits of two moditications—the ring cells being in one case 
cut off from a hemispherical, and in the other from a bell-shaped 
mother cell. It is to be hoped that I may succeed, in other 
species better suited for the vestigation than those hitherto 
examined by me, in tracing more accurately the process of 
septum-formation and the behaviour of the cell-nucleus during 
that process. Only then will it be possible to decide whether 
this new form of cell-formation ranges itself immediately 
beside that previously observed, or whether it is essentially 
different therefrom. 


EXPLANATION OF PLATE VI. 


Fig. 1. Youngest observed developmental stage of a marginal antheridium 
of Aneimia hirta. The central cell possesses the form of a bi- 
convex lens. (Drawn after treatment with caustic potash and 
muriatic acid.) 

Fig. 2. A somewhat older state; the bell-shaped cell is still undivided : 
a, fresh; 0, after the same treatment as fig. 1. 

Fig. 3. Half-grown antheridium; the envelope is completely formed ; in 
the central cell the first divisions are already produced: a & b 
as under fig. 2. 

Fig. 4. A somewhat older state than fig.3: a & b as under fig. 2. 

Fxg. 5. Mature antheridium. (It was evacuated during observation.) 

Fxg. 6. An antheridium just evacuated. (To the right the cell-nucleus 
of the ring cell is distinctly recognizable.) 

Fig. 7. An antheridium which has long been evacuated, seen from aboye. 
The inner folded wall of the ring cell is already strongly em- 
browned ; the cell-nucleus is no longer recognizable. 

Fig. 8, Half-developed antheridium of Ceratopteris thalictroides. springing 
obliquely from a marginal cell of the prothallium. The enve- 
lope is completely formed ; the central cell is divided crosswise 
into four cells. (Drawn after treatment with caustic potash and 
muriatic acid.) 

Fig. 9. Two mature antheridia of the same species: a, with normal, un- 
symmetrical, 6, with abnormal, symmetrical basal cell. 


* “Ueber die Entwickelung der Farrnkrautspaltéffnungen,” Bot, Zeit. 
1866, p. 245. 

+ “Kin Beitrag zur Entwickelungsgeschichte der Spaltoffnungen,” 
Pringsheim’s Jahrb. v. p. 309, 


On the Coleopterous Fauna of the Cape-Verde Islands. 245 


Fig. 10, Evacuated antheridium of the same species. A special mother 
cell has remained behind in the inner space. | 

Fig. 11, Rudimentary antheridium of Asplentwm alatum. Only the lower 
ring cell is cut off. Its cell-nucleus lay to the left, and was 
distinct when the antheridium was generally in focus. 

Fig. 12. Like the last. 

Fig. 13, Somewhat later developmental state. The upper cell has divided 
into a shallow bell-shaped outer cell and the central cell: a & b 
as under fig. 2. 

Fig. 14. The bell-shaped cell has already been divided into the second 
ring cell and the opercular cell; the central cell is still undi- 
vided. (After treatment with caustic potash and muriatic acid.) 

Fig. 15, A somewhat older stage. The central cell is already divided 
into eight cells, of which ouly four are visible. (Treatment as 
under fig. 14.) 

Fig. 16, Mature antheridium ,with three ring cells; the intermediate 
ring cell is set obliquely upon the inferior one, so that one side 
of the latter is excluded from the envelope of the special mother 
cells. 

Fig. 17, Eyacuated antheridium, with three ring cells, in each of which 
a spherical nucleus is distinctly visible. 

Fig. 18, Young antheridium of Cibotium Schidei, seen from above. The 
central cell is broken up into four quadrants, of which two are 
already again divided; the operculum consists of two cells, 
(After treatment with caustic potash and muriatic acid.) 

Fig. 19. Young antheridium, seen from the side. The central cell is still 
undivided. By a mistake of the lithographer, the circle in 
which the lower funnel-shaped septum applies itself to the 
outer wall is placed rather too low down. 


All the figures are drawn with the camera, and magnified 325 diameters, 


XXV.—On Additions to the Coleopterous Fauna of the Cape- 
Verde Islands. By T. Vernon Wo.taston, M.A., F.L.S. 


Fam. Hydrophilide. 
Genus Puttuyprus (Col. Hesp. p. 44). 


My attention has lately been drawn by Dr. Sharp (who has 
studied the Philhydré with considerable care) to the fact that 
what I had hitherto regarded (on the authority, originally, of 
Aubé) as the melanocephalus of Olivier is not referable, in 
reality, to that insect. Moreover the Cape-Verde examples 
appear, in addition, to be separable into é¢wvo species, both of 
which are distinct from the one (recorded by myself, equally, 
as the “ melanocephalus”’) which is so universal in the Madeiran 
and Canarian archipelagos, and which Dr. Sharp is of opinion 
should be identified with the Mediterranean P. -politus of 
Kiister. These two Cape-Verde Philhydri he considered to 
be undescribed; and he has lately, therefore, at my own re- 
quest, published diagnoses of them, which, however, much 
they may be related dnter se, establish at all events the fact of 


246 Mr. T. V. Wollaston on the Coleopterous Fauna 


their complete divergence from the politus of more northern 
latitudes ; so that it would consequently appear that the true 
melanocephalus, although cited by myself for the Madeiran, 
Canarian, and Cape-Verde groups, has not yet been observed 
in any of them, the examples from the first and second 
archipelagos being referable to the politus of Kiister, whilst 
those from the third contain two additional forms, of which 
(although recently enunciated by Dr. Sharp) it may perhaps 
be useful here to give the characters afresh. The species 


alluded to are as follows :— 


Phithydrus Wollastont. 


P. subovalis, parum convexus, nitidus, niger (aut fusco-niger) sed in 
limbo gradatim dilutior, ubique crebre et subtiliter punctatus 
(punctis in elytris vix remotioribus); capite maculis duabus 
parvis lateralibus ante oculos, antennis (clava excepta), palpis 
tarsisque piceo-testaceis; pedibus piceis; coleopteris seriebus 
tribus irregularibus punctorum majorum utrinque longitudinaliter 
notatis. 

Long. corp. lin, circa 2}, 

hilhydrus melanocephalus, Woll. [nec Oliv.], Col. Hesp. 44 (1867). 

Wollastont, Sharp, Ann, Nat. Hist. ser. 4. vol. v. p. 16 (1869), 

Habitat ins. 8. Antonio, 8, Vicente, 8. Iago, et Brava, a Dom. J. 
Gray et meipso captus. 

Obs. Species P. politum, Kiist. (in ins. Canariensibus Maderensibusque, 
necnon in Hispania regionibusque contiguis lectum) prima facie 
simulans, sed corpore minore, subbreyiore, vix minus nitido et 
vix minus convexo, interdum in elytris subdistinctius punctulato, 
prothorace subbreviore, palpis tarsisque gracilioribus, necnon 
unguiculis (in utroque sexu vix diversis) minoribus denticuloque 
minore subtus armatis dignoscitur. 


This is apparently the common Philhydrus of the Cape- 
Verde archipelago; and we may expect that it will be found 
to be universal wherever there are streams and pools of suffi- 
cient importance not to be totally obliterated during the drier 
seasons. Having neglected, however, when compiling my 
‘ Coleoptera Hesperidum,’ to examine it with any great amount 
of care, I fell into the error of regarding it as a rather small 
state of the species which is so general throughout the Ma- 
deiran and Canarian groups; and since that species was iden- 
tified by Aubé, many years ago, with the European melano- 
cephalus, I have invariably cited it as such, and consequently 
looked upon this representative from the Cape Verdes as a 
mere depauperated phasis of the same. Yet the recent labours 
of Dr. Sharp have shown, as above mentioned, not only that 
I was mistaken in accepting too readily the determination of 
Aubé as regards the Madeiran and Canarian Philhydrus, but 


of the Cape-Verde Islands. 247 


likewise that the Cape-Verde examples are specifically distinct 

from those of the more northern archipelagos (which seem to 

be the politus, Kiist.). 

The present Philhydrus is decidedly more abundant than 
the following one, having been found by Mr. Gray and myself 
in the islands of 8. Antonio, 8. Vicente, 5. Iago, and Brava, 
in the first of which it was met with likewise by Dr. H. Dohrn. 
It is rather smaller, and just appreciably shorter, than the P. 
politus of more northern latitudes, its prothorax is (if any 
thing) a trifle more abbreviated, and its palpi and feet are 
slenderer,—the latter, moreover (which differ but slightly in 
the two sexes), having their claws considerably less developed, 
and armed at the inner base with a less conspicuous denticle. 

In his remarks on the Atlantic species of Philhydrus, Dr. 
Sharp observes that the P. Wollaston 1s “nearly as large as the 
northern P. melanocephalus, but is darker and more uniform in 
colour, with its elytra sparingly and much more indistinctly 
punctured, and with the claws of its tarsi much smaller and 
scarcely differing in structure in the two sexes,—in which 
last respect it resembles the P. ovalis, Th., and marginellus, 
Fab., and differs decidedly from P. politus, Kiist., and mear?- 
timus, Th.” 

Philhydrus hesperidum. 

P. oblongo-ovalis, minus conyexus, nitidus, ubique leviter et sub- 
tiliter punctulatus (punctis in elytris sensim remotioribus ac sub- 
obsoletis) ; capite nigro, maculis duabus parvis lateralibus ante 
oculos, antennis (clava excepta), palpis (apice ipsissimo excepto) 
tarsisque testaceis; pedibus piceis; prothorace brevi, in disco 
fusco-nigro, marginibus (presertim lateralibus) lurido-testaceis ; 
coleopteris lurido-testaceis, in disco plus minus obscurioribus 
(rarius nigrescentibus), seriebus tribus irregularibus punctorum 
majorum notatis. 

Long. corp. lin. 13-2. 

ae og melanocephalus (pars), Woll. [nec Oliv.], Col. Hesp. 44 

Hapiorthis Sharp, Ann. N. I. ser. 4, vol. v. p. 16 (1869). 

Habitat 8, Antonio, 8. Vicente, 8. Iago, et Brava, in locis similibus 
ac preecedens sed rarior. 

Obs. Speciei precedenti affinis sed (ut a cl. Sharp dicitur, et mihi 
videtur) certe distinctus. Differt corpore minore, minus conyexo, 
et paulo magis oblongo, punctura (saltem in elytris) subtiliore 
obsoletiore, prothorace sensim breyiore, marginibus evidentius 
dilutioribus, elytris minus nigris (interdum fere lurido-testaceis), 
palpisque ad apicem ipsissimum infuscatis, 


Apparently scarcer than the P. Wollaston?, but captured by 
Mr. Gray and myself in §. Antonio, 8. Vicente, 8. Iago, and 
Brava. It is smaller and less convex than that species, and 


248 Mr. T.V. Wollaston on the Coleopterous Fauna 


relatively a little narrower and more oblong; its prothorax is 
just appreciably shorter and more distinctly pale at the mar- 
gins (not only laterally but, narrowly so, even before and be- 
hind); its elytra are less black (being often scarcely more than 
a lurid testaceous brown even on the disk), and rather more 
finely and obsoletely punctulated ; and the extreme tips of its 
palpi are usually infuscate. 

Dr. Sharp, in alluding to this Philhydrus, remarks that it 
is closely allied in form and appearance to the Huropean P. 
marginellus, but that it is not quite so large as that species, 
and that it is at once distinguishable from it by, inter alia, its 
very sparingly and obsoletely punctured elytra. 


Fam. Coccinellide. 
Genus Scymnus (Col. Hesp. p. 159). 
After S. floricola and immediately before S. fractus (p. 163), 


insert the following :— 
Scymnus conjunctus, n. sp. 


S. ovalis, niger, subnitidus, grosse, longe et vix demisse cinereo- 
pubescens ; prothorace subconcolori (aut ad latera vix dilutiore), 
minute punctato, basi in medio leviter sinuato; elytris paulo 
densius ac multo distinctius punctatis, singulis ad apicem macula 
subluniformi (in disco postico sita), altera ovali longitudinali 
(intra discum posita), et tertia (longe ante humerum terminata, 
necnon in subluniformem postmediam longitudinaliter recte 
coéunte), rufu-testaceis ornatis; pedibus saturate testaceis. 

Long. corp. lin. 1. 

Habitat ins. 8. Vicente, a Dom. Gray semel deprehensus. 

The present Scymnus, in its general aspect and coloration, 
and much enlarged eyes, belongs to the same type as the 
fractus, picturatus, &e. of the Cape-Verde archipelago, as 
well as the Canarian maculosus and the Madeiran jflavo- 
pictus; but, judging from the single example now before me, 
it appears to be a trifle larger than any of them, as well as a 
little less shinmg and much more strongly punctured. T'rom 
the fractus and picturatus (with which alone it could be con- 
founded in the Cape-Verde fauna) it may further be known 
by its prothorax being somewhat broader and more sinuated 
at the base, and by the subhumeral patch on each of its elytra 
being confluent laterally with the exterior curve of the sub- 
apical (or postmedial) lunate one. The specimen from which 
my diagnosis has been drawn out was taken by Mr. Gray in 
the island of 8. Vicente, and was overlooked by myself (when 
compiling the ‘Coleoptera Hesperidum’) from the fact of its 
being mixed up, at the time, im a small tube, with various 
common forms which had been given to me by Mr. Gray. 


of the Cape-Verde Islands. 249 


Fam. Scauride. 


Genus Scaurus (Col. Hesp. p. 178). 


Scaurus variolosus. 


Mr. G. R. Crotch has recently informed me that he believes 
this Scaurus to be identical with the EKuropean S. punctatus. 
Although it is quite possible that it may in reality be but a 
geographical modification of that species, I cannot but think 
that the much less powerfully developed processes, even in 
the males, of its anterior femora and tibie (the hinder tooth of 
the former being reduced to a mere anguliform prominence, 
whilst that on the posterior edge of the latter is almost obsolete 
—indeed, completely so in the. opposite sex) is sufficient, apart 
from its rather smaller size and its somewhat more deeply and 
sharply punctured surface, to separate it from its Mediterranean 
ally. Nevertheless it is clear that S. punctatus is the spe- 
cies which it the most nearly resembles ; and naturalists must 
therefore judge for themselves whether or not they feel bound 
to regard it as a southern and altered phasis of that insect. 


Fam. Tenebrionide. 
Genus TENEBRIO, Linn. 


Tenebrio Paive, n. sp. 


T. subcylindricus, crassus, niger, subopacus, ubique densissime ar- 
guteque punctatus; prothorace transverso, basi fortiter bisinuato, 
ad latera (eequaliter facile rotundata) et basin tenuiter marginato, 
subeequali (i. e. ad basin ipsam nec transversim impresso, nec 
bifoveolato); mesosterno triangulariter concavo (lobum proster- 
nalem crassum recipiente), scutello magno transverso subpenta- 
gono-triangulari ; metasterno breyiusculo ; elytris ad basin valde 
sinuatis, vix omnino parallelis (se. pone medium plerumque ob- 
solete sublatioribus), nec solum punctis ubique obsitis sed argute 
substriato-punctatis punctisque perpaucis majoribus preecipue in 
interstitiis alternis parcissime irroratis; antennis pedibusque 
longiusculis robustis et dense punctatis, illarum art? 34° elongato, 
reliquis obsolete subserratis (i. e. intus apice subproductis), ult™ 
penultimo sensim longiore, tarsorum posteriorum art® basali 
elongato. 

Mas tibiis (presertim posterioribus) subarcuatis, necnon intus tu- 
berculis subdenticuliformibus remotis parce armatis. 

Long. corp. lin. 6-9. 

Habitat ins. Fogo, a cl. Barone Castello de Paiva nuper communi- 
catus. 


Several examples of this large Tenebrio have been commu- 
nicated by the Bario do Castello de Paiva, by whom they 


Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 4. Vol. v. as 


250 On the Coleopterous Fauna of the Cape-Verde Islands. 


were received from the island of Fogo*; and it gives me 
great pleasure to name the species after a naturalist so emi- 
nent, and from whose liberality I have at various times de- 
rived much valuable assistance in elucidating the Coleopterous 
fauna of these immediate Atlantic groups. “Tt is remarkable 
for its rather large size, thickened body, and nearly opaque, 
densely punctured surface—the elytra being, in addition, 
sharply substriate-punctate, and having a few larger pune- 
tures scattered sparingly down each alternate interstice. As 
compared with the 7. molitor and obscurus, of more northern 
latitudes, it may be said to be relatively a little broader and 
not guite so strictly parallel (the elytra having generally a 
slight tendency to be just appreciably dilated behind the mid- 
dle), with its prothorax (which is neither transversely im- 
pressed, nor bifoveolated, posteriorly) and its elytra more 
deeply sinuate at their respective bases, and with its limbs 
longer—the third and apical joints of the antenne (which are 
oradually subserrated internally, towards their apex), and the 
first one of the four hinder feet, being, more particularly, 
lengthened. Its sexual characters are somewhat pecuhar,— 
the male tibiz (especially the four hinder ones) being very 
gently curved, and sparingly armed along their inner edge 
with minute, distant, tuberculiform denticles. In the large 
size of its transverse scutellum it has more in common with 
T. molitor than with T. obscurus. 


Such are the three additions which have lately been made 
to the Coleopterous fauna of the Cape Verdes—raising the 
number of species which have hitherto been brought to light 
in that barren archipelago from 278 to 281. The fact, also, 
of the Carpophilus mutilatus (which was taken most abun- 
dantly by Mr. Gray and myself in 8. Antonio and §. Iago) 
being included amongst some S.- Vicente insects which have 
been given to me by Mr. Gray, and of the Diplognatha gagates 
(of which I obtained a single example in Brava) having been 
communicated by the Bario do Castello de Paiva, from Fogo, 
will augment the /ocal lists of those two particular islands— 
already increased, each of them, by one, through the new 


* Thaye no information as to the precise circumstances under which 
the Tenebrio Paive was found ; but there are many examples of it, mixed 
up with the following fourteen species, all of which (with the exception 
of the Diplognatha gagates, which I met with in Brava only) I myself 

captured in the low and intermediate districts of Fogo :—Calosoma sene- 
galense and tegulatum, Masoreus spinipes, Chlenius uncosignatus, Diplogna- 
tha gagates, Coccinella 7-punctata, Hegeter tristis, Oxycara similis, Scaurus 
variolosus, Melanocoma vestita, Trichosternum granulosum, and Opatrum 
patruele, clavipes, and hispidum. 


Mr. E. Billings on the Structure of the Crinoidea dc. 251 


Scymnus compunctus from the former, and the. Tenebrio Paivee 
from the latter. And when we likewise include an additional 
Philhydrus for 8. Antonio, 8. Vicente, 8. Iago, and Brava, 
the exact numbers (as hitherto ascertained) for the respective 
island-catalogues will stand as follows :— 


Seeantomio’ fo.) PLS S. Lagot e295 129 
S. Vicente...... 134 Pogot ee ae 95 
melNaealtor ee 27 Brava “ae. 62 


XXVI.—Notes on the Structure of the Crinoidea, Cystidea, 
and Blastoidea. By KH. Bituines, F.G.S., Paleeontologist 
of the Geological Survey of Canada*. 


1. Position of the Mouth in relation to the Ambulacral System. 


The earlier paleontologists, Gyllenhal, Wahlenberg, Pander, 
Hisinger, and others, described the large lateral aperture in the 
Cystidea as the mouth, apparently on account of its resem- 
blance to the five-jawed oral apparatus of the sea-urchins. In 
his famous monograph, ‘ Ueber Cystideen,’ 1845, Leopold von 
Buch advocated the view that it was not the mouth, but an 
ovarian aperture, and that the smaller orifice usually situated 
in the apex, from which the ambulacral grooves radiate, was 
the true oral orifice. These opinions were adopted by Prof. E. 
Forbes in his memoir on the British Cystidea, by Prof. J. Hall 
in the ‘ Paleontology of New; York,’ and by most others who 
have described these fossils, including myself, in my first paper 
on the Cystidea of Canada, published in the ‘ Canadian Journal’ 
in 1854. In 1858 I re-investigated the subject while preparing 
my Decade No. 3, and came to the conclusions that the lateral 
aperture was the mouth in those species which were provided 
with a separate anus, and that in all others it was both mouth 
and anus. The small apical orifice I described as an ambula- 


* From Silliman’s American Journal of Science, July 1869. 

“ This paper was prepared for the press last December; but as my 
collection of the Blastoidea was small, I thought it best to delay publica- 
tion until I could examine a greater number of specimens. In January I 
applied to 8.8. Lyon, Esq., of Jeffersonville, Indiana, and he replied that, 
if I would let him know what points I wished to investigate, he would 
supply me with the materials. On my giving him the desired informa- 
tion, he, in the most liberal manner, sent me a large collection (much 
larger than I expected to receive), consisting of numerous specimens of 
several genera, many of them in the state of preservation best adapted 
for investigation—some of them empty and others silicified in a matrix 
of limestone. Prof. E. J. Chapman (Professor of Geology and Mineralogy, 
Univ. Coll. Toronto) also kindly supplied me with several Russian Cysti- 
deans. To both of these gentlemen I here tender my thanks.”—E. B. 


LY fas 


252 Mr. E. Billings on the Structure of 


eral aperture. According to these views, the mouth of a Cys- 
tidean does not stand in the centre of the radial system, as it 
does in all the existing Echinodermata. On this point Prof. 
Wyville Thomson has the following observations :— 

“Tecan see no probability whatever in the opinion lately 
advocated by Mr. Billings,.and which has received some vague 
support from the writings of De Koninck and others, that the 
‘pyramid’ in the Cystideans i is the mouth, and that the aper- 
ture whence the ambulacra radiate is simply an ‘ambulacral 
orifice.” Such an idea appears to me to be contrary to every 
analogy in the class. ‘There can be no doubt of the existence 
of distinct openings for the passage of the ambulacral nerves 
and vessels from the calyx of many of the paleeozoic crinoids; 
but I think we must certainly assume that in this, as in all 
other known instances, these vessels. had their origin in an 
annular vessel surrounding the mouth. In the whole class 
the cesophageal circular canal seems to be the origin and 
centre of the ambulacral system. It is the first part which 
makes its appearance in the embryo, and is so permanent and 
universal that one could scarcely imagine a radiating ambula- 
cral vessel rising from any other source. The early origin of 
this important vascular centre, in this annular form and in 
this position, evidently depends upon, and is closely connected 
with, the origin of the nervous system in the cesophageal 
ner ve-ring, constant in the whole Invertebrate series’*, 

With all due deference, I cannot admit that we must assume 
that, in the Cystidea, the ambulacral tubes had their origin in 
“an annular vessel surrounding the mouth.” It is true that 
such a vessel does surround the mouth of existing Echinoder- 
mata; but there is no essential or direct physiological connex- 
ion between the two organs. ‘Their functions are exercised 
independently of each other. ‘There is no organ issuing out 
of the alimentary canal that communicates with the annular 
vessel. This latter might be situated in any other part of the 
body, and still perform its functions, provided there were a 
connexion between it and the ambulacra. In this class the 
position of the various organs in relation to each other, and 
also to the general mass of the body, is subject to very great 
fluctuations. Thus the mouth and vent are separated in some 
of the groups, but united in others, while either or both may 
open out to the surface directly upward or downward, or at 
any lateral point. The ovaries may be either dorsal or ventral, 
internal or external, and associated with either the mouth, 
the anus, or with neither. The ambulacral skeleton may : 


* Edinburgh New Phil. Journal, vol. xiii. p. 112 (1861). 


the Crinoidea, Cystidea and Blastoidea. 253 


imbedded in and form a portion of the general -covering of the 
body, or lie upon the surface, or be borne upon free-moving 
arms. In genera belonging to the same family these relations 
are constant or nearly so, ‘but are found to be extremely vari- 
able when different orders or remotely allied families are 
compared, . 

While preparing my Decade No. 3, I investigated this sub- 
ject, and satisfied myself that in at least a large proportion of 
the paleozoic Crinoids the mouth was disconnected altogether 
from the radial system. A great many species might be re- 
ferred to in which we can see both the centre from which the 
ambulacra proceed, and the mouth, and at the same time see 
that they are not in the same place. A long train of reason- 
ing is not necessary, only simple inspection. It will be quite 
sufficient to notice a few of these species to prove that the 
rule laid down by Prof. Wyville Thomson is not a general 
rule. 


Fig. 1. This figure is a diagram of the interior of the vault 
of a Crinoid which appears to be Batocrinus ccosidactylus 
(Cassiday), a fossil that occurs in the Carboniferous rocks of 
Kentucky. It was sent to me by Mr.8.8. Lyon, of Jefferson- 
ville, Indiana, several years ago. The test is in a beautiful 
state of preservation, and perfectly empty, so that all of the 
markings on the inner surface can be distinctly seen. There 
are twenty-one arms arranged in five groups (a), and the same 
number of ambulacral openings (p), each just large enough to 
admit of the entrance of a slender pin. The mouth (mv) is 
nearly central; and close to it, on the posterior side, there is a 
small rudely pentagonal space (c) with no markings except 
several small tubercles. ‘The grooves are scarcely at all im- 
pressed ; and, indeed, I think they are never so in any Crinoid, 
except in those which have a thick test. In this specimen 
their course is clearly indicated by the remains of the thin 
partitions which either separated them or to which the vessels 
were attached. ‘They do not run directly toward the mouth, as 


254 Mr. E. Billings on the Structure of 


they would do if that organ were the centre of the ambulacral 
system, but to the small space (c) behind it, where there ap- 
pears to have been situated a vesicle or some other apparatus, 
to which all of them were united. Whatever may have been 
the structure of this central organ, from which the five main 
grooves radiate, it no doubt represented the annular vessel of 
the recent Echinodermata to which Prof. Thomson alludes. 

Fig. 2 represents the structure of an Amphoracrinus from 
the Carboniferous rocks of Ireland (precise locality and spe- 
cies not determined). ‘There are ten arms; the test is very 
thick ; the ambulacral channels converge to the central point, 
but do not quite reach it; the mouth (mv) is about half- 
way between the centre and the margin. In this Crinoid it is 
perfectly impossible that the mouth can be the centre of the 
radial system, because the two anterior passages, between 
which it is situated, are for their whole length tunnelled, as it 
were, through the substance of the plates, and only penetrate 
downward into the interior at the central space. 

Fig. 3 is a plan of the summit of the widely known and 
remarkable fossil Caryocrinus ornatus (Say). In this species 
there are only three, instead of five, groups of arms. In large 
individuals there are from twelve to twenty free arms (but 
always arranged in the three groups), witha small pore at the 
base of each. ‘This pore is about the size of the ovarian pore 
of an Echinus, and can only be seen in well-preserved and 
clean specimens. ‘The ambulacral grooves have not yet been 
observed, but their course is indicated by three low rounded 
ridges, which may be seen, in some specimens, radiating from 
a large heptagonal plate situated at c. The mouth (mv) is 
valvular, composed of from five to eight or ten plates, and is 
always situated near the margin between the two anterior 
groups of arms. With the exception of the ambulacral pores, 
there is positively no other aperture in the summit of Caryo- 
crinus. If it be true that the mouth of an Echinoderm must 
be always situated in the radial centre, then Caryocrinus and 
also nearly all the paleeozoic genera were destitute of that 
aperture. 

Caryocrinus is a genus which seems to form a connecting 
link between the Crinoidea and the Cystoidea. By examining 
numerous well-polished sections, I find that the structure of 
the respiratory areas is the same (in general plan) as that of 
the genera G'lyptocystites, Pleurocystites, and Echinoencrinites, 
as will be shown further on. The arms are also arranged in 
three groups, as in Spheronites and Hemicosmites, while the 
mouth is valvular. an the other hand, the long cylindrical 
column and the arrangement of the arms around the margin, 


the Crinoidea, Cystidea, and Blastoidea. 255 


with the ambulacral pores at their bases, are Crinoidal cha- 
racters. 

In addition tg the above, the following species may be re- 
ferred to as examples of Crinoids with the mouth separate 
from the centre of the radial system :-— 

Amphoracrinus tessellatus (Phillips). Figured by J. Rofe, 
Esq., Geol. Mag. vol. 11. p. 8, fig. 3. The figure represents ¢ 
cast of the interior of the vault, showing the five ambulacral 
grooves in relief. The mouth is situated in the angle between 
the two anterior grooves. 

Strotocrinus perumbrosus (Hall, sp.). Figured by Meek and 
Worthen in the ‘Geology of Illinois,’ vol. 1. p. 188, f. 5. 
The specimen is 13 lines in diameter, the ambulacral centre 
13 lines from the anterior margin, and the mouth 11 lines*. 

Glyptocrinus armosus (M‘Chesney, sp.). This extraordi- 
nary Crinoid is figured by M‘Chesney in his ‘ New Pal. Foss.’ 
pl. 7.f.6, and also by Prof. Hall, in the 20th Reg. Rep. N.Y. 
pl. 10. f. 11. The specimens are between 2 and 3 inches in 
length. There are ten arms; the anterior side is much inflated ; 
the proboscis appears to be large at its base and excentric in 
its position, but, instead of standing erect, it bends down to 
the surface of the vault, and lies upon it, crossing over to the 
posterior margin. Judging from the figures, the centre of the 


* In April last I received from Messrs. Meek and Worthen a paper 
entitled “ Notes on some points in the Structure and Habits of the Palzo- 
zoic Crinoidea.” Of all the papers relating to this subject yet published 
on this continent, this one (at least, soit appears to me) is the most in- 
teresting and important. It is written with a clearness and particularity 
rarely to be seen in paleontological memoirs. In some respects it con- 
firms the opinions advocated in these notes, but hears directly against 
my views on the question here under discussion, 7. e. “ the position of the 
mouth with relation to the radial centre.” As I wish to give the remark- 
able observations of the authors full consideration, [ shall not discuss 
them now, but delay until the September No. of this Journal. [Meek 
and Worthen’s paper is given in Silliman’s Journal, July 1869, p. 23.] 
I shall only state here that I believe that the grooves on the ventral disk 
of Cyathocrinus, and also the internal “ convoluted plate” of the paleeozoic 
Crinoids, with the tubes radiating therefrom, belong to the respiratory 
and perhaps, in part, to the circulatory systems—not to the digestive 
system, as is supposed by the authors. The convoluted plate, with its 
thickened border, seems to foreshadow the “ cesophageal circular canal,” 
with a pendent madreporic apparatus as in the Holothuridea. To me the 
final determination of this question is of much importance; for if Meek 
and Worthen are right, then I must be wrong so far as regards nearly all 
that I have published with reference to the functions of the apertures of 
the paleozoic Echinodermata. It is fortunate that the solution of this 
curious problem is now undertaken by men who have access to the mag- 
nificent cabinets of the geologists of the western States, and also by men 
who habitually discuss scientific subjects with the sole object in view of 
arriving at the truth. 


256 My. E. Billings on the Structure of 


base of this organ must be distant from the radial centre at 
least one-fourth of the whole width of the vault. G. sipho- 
natus (Hall), figured on the same plate, shows that the anterior 
grooves curve round to the posterior side of the proboscis, as 
they do in B. tcosidactylus above cited. 

I should also state here that, two or three years ago, Mr. 
Meek, to whom I had written for information on this subject, 
wrote me that in all cases where he had observed the grooves 
on the interior of the vault, they radiated, not from the mouth, 
but from a point ‘in front of it.” (This would not be in front 
of, but behind, the mouth, according to the terminology used 
in these notes. I think that the side in which the mouth is 
situated should be called “ anterior” or “oral,” even although 
both the mouth and anus should be included in it.) 

In all the species above cited, the figures (with the exception 
of that of C. ornatus) exhibit the relative position of the mouth 
and radial centre as it has been actually seen in casts of the inte- 
rior of the vault. But, besides these, numerous examples may 
be found in the works of Miller, Austin, De Koninck, Phillips, 
Meek, Worthen, Shumard, Hall, Lyon, Cassiday, and others, 
of Crinoids whose external characters show that, in them, the 
mouth cannot be in the central pot from which the grooves 
radiate. 

With respect to Prof. Thomson’s theory, I freely admit 
that, if it is true that in all the Echinodermata, fossil and 
recent, the mouth is the radial centre, then that aperture must 
be the one which I call the ambulacral orifice in the Cystidea. 
The views, however, advocated by me in my Decade No. 3 
appear to be gradually gaining ground. As these fossils are 

rare, few have occasion to study them ; and consequently the 
subject has not been much discussed ‘since 1858, the date of 
the publication of that work. ‘The following are the only 
authors, so far as I have ascertained, who have given their 
opinions on this vexed question during the last eleven years :— 

Prof. Wyville Thomson, op. cit. p. “111 (1861), agrees with 
me that the lateral aperture is not an ovarian orifice, but, as 
we have seen, is strongly opposed to the view that it is the 
mouth. He calls it the anus. 

Prof. Dana (Man. Geol. p. 162, 1863) recognizes it as the 
homologue of the simple aperture (oral and anal) in the sum- 
mit of those Crinoids which have but one. This is exactly my 
view. [J.W. Salter agrees with Prof. Thomson that it is the 
anus, not the ovarian aperture (Mem. Geol. Sur. G. B. vol. 11. 
p- 286, 1866.) Prof. 8. Lovén, of Stockholm, has described, 
in the ¢ Proceedings of the Royal Swedish Academy,’ 1867, the 
remarkable sea-urchin, Leskia mirabilis (Gray), which has the 


the Crinoidea, Cystidea, and Blastoidea. 257 


mouth constructed on the same plan as that of the Cystidea, 
that is to say, with five triangular valve-like plates, which are 
immediately attached to the interambulacral plates, without 
the intervention of a buccal membrane. After comparing this 
structure with the valvular orifice of Spheronites pomum 
(Gyll.), he says :—“ that the ‘ pyramid,’ which in Leskia is the 
armature and covering of the mouth, is the same thing in the 
Cystidea is now quite certain; in the last-named group it 
was, doubtless, also the vent. The mouth does not lie where 
J. Miiller and Volborth sought for it, viz. in the centre of the 
ambulacral furrows; and the organ interpreted as the vent by 
Volborth and Von Buch, is more correctly regarded as an ex- 
ternal sexual organ.” (Geol. Mag. vol. v. p. 181, Dr. Liitken’s 
transl.) | 


2. On the Pectinated Rhombs and Calycine Pores of 
the Cystidea. 


None of the organs of the Echinodermata have been the 
subject of so much speculation as the calycine pores and the 
so-called ‘ pectinated rhombs”’ of the Cystidea. Their rela- 
tions and function long remained in doubt; but there seems 
to be now sufficient data to show that they are respiratory 
organs, and also that they are the homologues of the tubular 
apparatus which underlies the ambulacra of the Blastoidea. 
J. Miiller suggested a comparison between these peculiar or- 
gans and the respiratory pores of the Asteride (Ueber den 
Bau der Echinodermen, p. 63, 1854). Prof. Huxley has placed 
them in the same relation (Medical Times, Dec. 1856). Hich- 
wald calls them respiratory pores (Lethea Rossica, vol. i. 
p- 614: 1860). Prof. Dana says “ they are probably connected 
with an aquiferous system and respiration”? (Man. Geol. 
p-162: 1863). Myr. Rofe, after showing that their structure 1s 
the same as that of the striated surfaces between the rays of 
Codaster, says, ‘‘ From the construction of these striations on 
the face of Codaster, and on the ‘ pectinated rhombs’ of the 
Cystidea, may we without assumption suggest the possibility 
of their being respiratory sacs, lined with cilia, and constructed 
of a porous test, through which air from the water could pass 
by diffusion” (Geol. Mag. vol. 11. 251: 1865). As for myself, 
when I prepared my Decade on the Cystidea, I gave this sub- 
ject a great deal of consideration, and studied a large number 
of specimens, but could arrive at no conclusion satisfactory to 
myself. I am now convinced that the view of the above- 
named distinguished authors is the correct one. These are 
respiratory organs. In all the species in which they occur 
they seem to be constructed on the same general plan, 7. e, 


258 Mr. E. Billings on the Structure of 


the interposition of an exceedingly thin partition between the 
circumambient water and the fluid within the general cavity 
of the body. They are usually of a rhomboidal shape, each 
thomb being divided into two triangles by the suture (ce ¢, 
figs. 4,5) between two of the plates. In several of the genera 
the two halves of the hydrospires are reniform, ovate, or 
lunate, and either internal or external. 


Fig. 4. Fig. 5. Fig. 6. 
e.. erg ec b c pe 
a ee, 
ul | UN] We NN 


Fig. 7. 


Fig. 4. Hydrospire of Caryocrinus ornatus: a, surface view, the dots 
around the margin are the spiracles, the small dotted lines represent 
the course of the flat internal canals; cc, suture between the two 
plates; 0, transverse section. Fig. 5. Hydrospire of Plewrocystites : 
a, surface view; cc, suture; 6, transverse section. Fig. 6. The same, 
with the points ce drawn together. Fig. 7. Internal gill of a spider. 


In order to avoid the use of double terms, I propose to call 
them “ hydrospires,”’ and their apertures “ pores,” “‘ fissures,” 
or “ spiracles,” according to their form. 

In Caryocrinus ornatus the hydrospires (fig. 4) are of a 
rhomboidal form, and have each of the four sides bordered by 
a single row of small tubercles. Some of these tubercles have 
a single pore in the summit, while others are perforated with 
a variable number—from two to twenty, or perhaps more, 
thus becoming vesicular or spongy. It is only the apex of the 
tubercle, however, that has this structure; for when this is 
worn off, there is only a single pore to be seen. The pores 
penetrate through the plates, but do not communicate directly 
with the general cavity of the body. Internally each hydro- 
spire consists of a number of flat tubes arranged parallel to 
each other and lying side by side, in the direction of the 
dotted lines in fig. 4a. Each tube receives two of the pores 
seen on the exterlor—one pore at each end. ‘These tubes are 
composed of a very thin shelly membrane, which, although 
possessed of sufficient rigidity to maintain its form, was, no 
doubt, of such a minutely porous texture as to admit of the 
transfusion of fluids in both directions—outward and inward. 


the Crinoidea, Cystidea, and Blastoidea. 259 


In a large hydrospire there are about twenty of those tubes ; 
their greatest breadth is at their mid-length, where they are 
crossed by the suture (cc); and as they become narrower 
accordingly as their length decreases, the one in the middle 
projects the deepest into the perivisceral cavity. In con- 
sequence of this arrangement, when a section is made across 
the hydrospire at the suture, ¢ c, fig. 4 a, the form 0 is obtained, 
where cc is the surface of the shell, while the comb-like struc- 
ture below represents the tubes. 

Specimens of C. ornatus almost entirely empty are often 
found; and in some of these the internal form of the hydro- 
Spires is sometimes preserved. Those that I have seen have 
the form of small rhomboidal pyramids, with four slightly 
convex sloping faces, and composed of a number of vertical 
parallel plates (the casts of the imterior of the tubes), the sub- 
stance of the tube itself not being preserved. I have, how- 
ever, several polished transverse sections in which I think the 
thin walls can be seen. 

The structure of the hydrospires is such that there can 
searcely be any doubt that they are respiratory organs. The 
sea-water entered through the pores, and aérated the chyla- 
queous fluid contained in the perivisceral cavity by trans- 
fusion through the exceedingly thin membranous shell that 
composed the walls of the tubes. The number of pores varies 
with the size of the individual. In large specimens there are 
from 800 to 1000. 

It has been stated by some authors that the pores were pas- 
sages for the protrusion of internal organs connected with the 
vitality of the animal. The fact, however, that the pores do 
not penetrate into the general cavity of the body disproves 
this theory; and, moreover, through many of the tubercles 
(those with a vesicular and spongy summit) such protrusion 
would be utterly impossible. 

In Caryocrinus ornatus there are thirty hydrospires, arranged 
as follows :— 

1. Ten at the base—half of each on a basal plate and the 
other half on one of the subradials, their longer diagonal 
vertical. 

2. A zone of six around the fossil at the mid-height, their 
longer diagonals horizontal. These seem to be impertectly 
developed; for, on the inside, the tubes occupy only a small 
space in the centre. 

3. A third band, of fourteen—two of them with their longer 
diagonals vertical, and the others arranged in six pairs, the 
diagonals of each pair inclining toward each other upward 
at an angle of about 30°. There are only three interradii in 


260 Mr. E. Billings on the Structure of 


Caryocrinus ; the mouth is placed in one of them, and the two 
hydrospires with vertical diagonals in the other two. 

In Pleurocystites the hydrospires are also of a rhomboidal 
form ; but, instead of having the tubular structure of Caryo- 
ertnus, they consist of a number of parallel inward folds of an 
exceedingly thin part of the shell. These folds, no doubt, 
represent the tubes of Caryocrinus. If we grind down a 
hydrospire of this latter, so as to remove all the shell, and 
expose the edges of the tubes, it then presents precisely the 
same form as fig. 5a (7. e. the form of a rhomb longitudinally 
striated at right angles to the suture, and with no pores). The 
transverse section in Pleurocystites only differs from that in 
Caryocrinus in having no shell between the points ec. In 
the hydrospire of Pleurocystites robustus, of the Trenton 
Limestone, we have the commencement of the formation of an 
internal gill with a single spiracle. The surface is not flat, as 
it is in many species, but concave, as shown in the section ; 
and it is evident that if the concavity were carried further, 
and at the same time the points c c made to approach each 
other, the effect would be to produce an elongated sac, 
deeply folded on one side, and with a fissure extending the 
whole length on the other side. The transverse section of 
such a sac would be fig. 6, the same as in Pentremites. Again, 
if we contracted the four sides, gradually curving them outward 
at the same time, but not diminishing the superficial extent 
of the walls of the folds, although altering the form to corre- 
spond with the decreasing aperture, the result would be a 
deeply folded flask-shaped sac, with a small round orifice 
like fig. 7, which is the internal gill of a spider. 

In Paleocystites tenuiradiatus, a species very characteristic 
of the Chazy Limestone, the whole surface (in the condition in 
which the fossil is usually found) is covered with deeply striated 
rhombs, the fissures being deepest where they cross the suture, 
and growing gradually shallower as they approach the centre 
of the plates, where they die out altogether. Detached plates 
occur in vast abundance, but no perfect specimens have ever 
been found. I discovered, however, several fragments of the 
body sufficient to give the general form and to show that, 
when the surface is perfect, all these fissures are completely 
covered over by a very thin shell, and that when they cross 
the suture, there is a small pore in the bottom of each which 
penetrates to the interior. The rhombs of this species are 
thus external hydrospires. The fissures seen in the ordinary 
weathered specimens are the remains of flat tubes like those 
of Caryocrinus, situated on the outer instead of the inner 
surface of the test. The chylaqueous fluid passed outward 


the Crinoidea, Cystidea, and Blastoidea. 261 


through the pores and filled the tubes, to be aérated through 
the thin external covering by the surrounding water. In 
Caryoerinus the water passed inward, through the pores, into 
the tubes, and aérated the fluid within the general cavity of 
the body. 

The discovery that the fissures and pores of the Cystidea do 
not communicate directly with the general cavity of the body 
is entirely due to Mr. Rofe. After reading his highly impor- 
tant paper, I re-examined a great number of specimens, and 
found sufficient to confirm his observations. 


3. On the Genus CODASTER. 


Every author who has described a species of this genus has 
remarked the peculiar striated areas in the interradial spaces. 
Prof. M‘Coy, the founder of the genus, pointed out their re- 
semblance to the hydrospires of the Cystidea; but it was Mr. 
Rofe who first showed that they were also identical in struc- 
ture therewith. On comparing one of these with that of the 
Cystidean Pleurocystites (fig. 5), we at once perceive that they 
are the same in external form, while Mr. Rofe’s figures show 
that the section at dd (fig.8) has the structure of fig. 9, which 
only differs from fig.56 in being straight above instead of 
concave, and in being divided. into two parts. This division 
is the result of the position of the arm, which cuts the hydro- 
spire in two in a direction parallel to the fissures. By draw- 
ing the points da and ad together, we get figure 10, which 
is, in general plan, a section across one of the ambulacra of a 
Pentremite. On examining nearly all the published figures 
of species of this genus, I find that there is a series of forms 
which exhibit a gradual passage, from those with the hydro- 
spires almost entirely exposed (as in fig. 8), through others, in 


Fig. 8. Fig. 9. 


Fig. 8. Summit of C. acutus, M‘Coy: mv, mouth and vent; dd, suture 
across the posterior hydrospire. Fig. 9. Section across the hydrospire 
from d to d; at ais the place of the arm. Fig. 10. The section con- 
tracted as in fig. 6. Fig. 11. Summit of Pentremites caryophyllatus, 
De Koninck. 


262 Mr. E. Billings on the Structure of 


which they are crowded more and more under the arms, until 
at length they become altogether internal. 

In C. acutus (fig. 8) only a small portion of the hydrospire 
is concealed under the arm. In C. canadensis, a new species 
lately discovered in the shales of the Hamilton group in Ca- 
nada West, each of the four interradial spaces in which the 
hydrospires are placed is excavated in such a manner as to 
form a small triangular pyramid, with two of its faces sloping 
down toward the sides of the two adjacent arms. On these 
two slopes are placed the hydrospires, which appear to have 
one fissure entirely under and another partly under the arm, 
five others being fully exposed. 8. 8. Lyon has described a 
species under the name of C. alternatus, in the ‘Geology of 
Kentucky,’ vol. iii. p. 494, from the Devonian rocks of that 
State, which closely resembles C. canadensis, but is still dis- 
tinct therefrom. Speaking of the structure of the summit, 
he says :—‘ The depressed triangular intervening spaces are 
filled with seven or more thin pieces, lying parallel to the 
pseudambulacral fields, articulating with the summit of the 
second radial, and the prominent ridge lying between the 
pseudambulacra. These pieces were evidently capable of 
being compressed or depressed: the ‘point’ at the lateral 
junction of the second radials is in some specimens folded 
over toward the mouth, so as to entirely obscure these trian- 
gular spaces by covering them.” ‘This important observation 
proves that even in the same species the hydrospires may be 
either partly or wholly concealed under the arm. The “ pont” 
to which Mr. Lyon alludes is seen above, in fig. 11, just below 
the letter h; itis the same as the “ small triangular pyramid” 
in O. canadensis. It is evident that (supposing the shell 
to be flexible), if these points were to be drawn inward, the 
movement would gradually cause what remains exposed of the 
hydrospire to be covered, until at length it would be entirely 
concealed under the arm. ‘The five points would then be 
situated in the angles between the five ambulacra, as they are 
in the genus Pentremites (fig. 15). The concealment of the 
hydrospires may also be the result of the widening of the 
arm. This is well shown in P. caryophyllatus, De Koninck 
(P. Orbignyanus, according to Roemer), P. Schultzii, DeVern., 
and several other species. In these the apices of the pyra- 
mids remain near the margin; but the hydrospires are nearly 
covered by the wide arms. This is shown in fig. 11, where the 
ends of the fissures of the hydrospires are seen along the sides 
of the angular ridges which extend from the apices of the 
pyramids to the angles between the arms. I do not think that 
such species can be referred to Pentremites ; and if I had spe- 


the Crinoidea, Cystidea, and Blastoidea. 263 


-cimens before me instead of figures only, I should most proba- 
bly institute a new genus for their reception. 

Our specimens of C. canadensis are well preserved, and 
show the characters of the arms perfectly. After many careful 
examinations under the microscope, I can state positively that 
in this species the so-called ‘ pseudambulacral fields” have 
no pores. The markings that have hitherto been mistaken for 
ambulacral pores in Codaster are not pores, but the small pits 
or sockets which received the bases of the pimnule. The rays 
therefore in this genus are not ‘ pseudambulacral fields,” in 
the sense in which that term is used in descriptions of species 
of Pentremites, but simply recumbent arms, identical in struc- 
ture with those of the Cystidean genera Glyptocystites, Callo- 
eystites, Apiocystites, and others. They lie upon the surface 
of the plates which constitute the shell of the animals—not 
imbedded in them, as in Pentremites. The large lateral 
aperture is both mouth and vent, and the central opening 
heretofore called the mouth is the ambulacral or, more pro- 
perly, the ovarian orifice. As therefore Codaster has the arms 
of Aprocystites, the hydrospires of Plewrocystites, and the con- 
fluent mouth and vent common to all Cystideans, I propose 
to remove it from the Blastoidea and place it in the order 
Cystidea. 


4, On the Genus PENTREMITES. 


In Pentremites the hydrospire is an elongated internal sac, 
one side of which is attached to the inside of the shell, while 
the side opposite, or toward the central axis of the visceral 
cavity, is more or less deeply folded longitudinally. There 
are two of these to each ambulacrum, attached along the two 
lines of pores. There appears to be a fissure extending nearly 
the whole length in the direction of the dotted line f (fig. 12). 
One edge of this fissure is attached to the lancet plate, along 
one side of the line of pores, the other to the shell, on the other 
side of the row. The pores all enter the hydrospire through 
this fissure. There are ten hydrospires, connected together in 
pairs, each pair communicating with the exterior through a 
single spiracle. The arrangement of the folds varies according 
to the species. In P. Godoni there are five folds, the outer 
sides of which are close up to the inner side of the lancet 
plate (fig. 13). In a specimen of P. obesus, Lyon, nearly two 
inches in diameter at the mid-height, the hydrospires extend 
inward about three lines, the main body being about one lne 
from the lancet plate. There are five folds, each two lines 
deep; and thus, if the thin shelly membrane which constitutes 
the wall of the hydrospire were spread out, it would have a 


264 Mr. E. Billings on the Structure of 


width of twenty-two lines; and the ten together would form a 
riband about eighteen inches in length and nearly two inches 
wide. The object of the folding is, of course, to confine this 
large amount of surface to a small space—an arrangement 
which at once proves the function to be respiratory. Of those 
figured by Mr. Rofe, P. ellipticus, Sowerby, appears to have 
only one fold; P. ¢nflatus, idem, shows eight folds in one and 
eleven in the other hydrospire of the same ambulacrum. 
Another specimen, figured by Mr. Rofe under the name of 
P. florealis, Say, has five folds situated at a distance from the 
inner surface of the lancet plate, as in P. obesus. From the 
form of the organ, I think that Mr. Rofe’s specimen cannot be 
the species called P. florealis by Say. 

If it be granted that these organs are respiratory in their 
function, then their five apertures should be called spiracles, 


Fig. 12. 


Fig. 12. Diagrams of one pair of the hydrospires of a Pentremite: a, the 
inner side ; b, the outer, or side attached to the shell; 7, the fissures. 
Fig. 13. Section across an ambulacrum of a specimen of P. Godoni, en- 
larged 3 diameters: J, lancet plate; g, ambulacral groove; p p, pores 
leading into the hydrospires; hh, the two hydrospires, in transverse 
section. Fig. 14. Ideal figure of a transverse section through an entire 
specimen, showing the ten hydrospires : /, one of the five lancet plates ; 
Pp Pp, pores; rr, the two branches of one of the radial plates. Fig. 15. 
Summit of P. conotdeus : a, anterior side; g, ambulacral grooves (copied 
from Dr. Shumard, but with the ovarian pores added). 


the Crinoidea, Cystidea, and Blastoidea. 265 


not “ovarian orifices.” The large anterior aperture would 
thus be the oro-anal spiracle. Applying this system of termi- 
nology to other groups, the so-called ovarian orifice of the 
Cystidea, the homologous aperture of Nucleocrinus, Codaster, 
Granatocrinus, and of the paleozoic Crinoidea generally (but 
not of the recent forms) should be styled the oro-anal orifice. 

I think that the side of an Echinoderm in which the mouth 
is situated should be called “ anterior,” even although the anus 
and the mouth be confluent in one orifice. Most starfishes 
have but one aperture for mouth and vent, and yet it is called 
the mouth by naturalists generally. Why not call the under- 
side of a starfish “the anal or posterior side,” and the central 
aperture the ‘anus ?” 

Dr. B. F. Shumard has shown (Trans. Acad. Nat. Sci. St. 
Louis, vol. i. p. 243, pl. 9. fig. 4) that in perfect specimens 
of P. conoideus, Hall, the six summit-apertures are closed by 
several small plates. In a specimen of the same species, sent 
me by Mr. Lyon, in which those plates are partly preserved, I 
find that there is a small pore in each of the five angles of the 
central aperture. The five ambulacral grooves enter the inte- 
rior through these pores. I have copied his figure, but modi- 
fied it by adding the pores, fig. 15. He also found that the 
summit of P. sulcatus, Roemer, was covered with an integu- 
ment of small plates arranged in the form of a pyramid. 
From these facts he infers that in all the Pentremites the 
summit-apertures will be found, in perfect specimens, to be 
closed in a similar manner. 

Dr. C. A. White, at present State Geologist of Iowa, in a 
paper on the same subject (Bost. Journ. N. H. vol. vin. 
pp. 481-488), describes P. Norwoodii, Owen and Shumard, 
and P. stelliformis, id., as having a similar structure; but he 
goes further: he considers the central orifice ‘ not to be the 
mouth ; and I believe that he is the first naturalist who ever 
published such an opinion. His idea of its function is thus 
expressed :—“ It seems more probable that, as the ova were 
germinated within the body, they found their exit through 
the central aperture, and were conveyed along the small cen- 
tral grooves of the pseudambulacral fields before mentioned, 
beneath the plated integument, to the bases of the tentacula, 
where they were developed and discharged as in the true 
Crinoids.” I perfectly agree with Dr. White in this view. 
The central aperture is not the mouth; in fact, it is not a 
natural orifice, but a breach in the summit caused by the 
destruction of a portion of the vault. The true natural orifices 
of this part are those that I have discovered in P. conotdeus, 
as above mentioned. They are the homologues of the ovarian 


Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 4. Vol. v. 18 


266 Messrs. Hancock & Atthey on an undescribed 


pores at the bases of the arms of Caryocrinus, and in part, as 
I shall show in another part of these notes, of the ambulacral 
orifices of the true Crinoids. 

With regard to the structure of the calyx of Pentremites, it 
is generally supposed that there are only three series of plates 
—the basal, radial, and interradial. Mr. Lyon has advanced 
the opinion that there are three small plates below those now 
called the basals (Geol. Ky. vol. iii. p. 468, pl. 2. fig. 1 ¢). 
I have examined a number of specimens with reference to this 
point, and I think he is right. There are three small penta- 
gonal basals, the two upper sides of each of which are exca- 
vated to receive the subradials, 7.e. those at present designated 
“the basals.” They are in general anchylosed to the sub- 
radials ; but in one of Mr. Lyon’s specimens that I have seen 
they are distinctly separate. 


[To be continued. } 


XXVII.—Note on an undescribed Fossil Fish from the News- 
ham Coal-shale near Newcastle-upon-Tyne. By ALBANY 
Hancock, F.L.S., and THomas ATTHEY. 


For several years past we have been much puzzled with a 
large ichthyic tooth that is not by any means uncommon at 
Newsham. We could not make out to what fish to assign it. 
Indeed there is but one, of sufficient size, found in the locality, 
of which the teeth are not known, that was at all likely ; and 
the remains of this were supposed to belong to Rhizodus ; and 
as the teeth in question are perfectly devoid of cutting-edges, 
they could not belong to it. We had doubts, however, as to 
these remains really being those of that obscure fossil, and 
thought that probably they would be found some day or other 
associated with our unknown tooth—that it belonged, in fact, 
to these supposed Rhizodus-bones. And such is apparently 
the case. 

A jaw has just been obtained at Newsham with one of these 
large enigmatical teeth attached, and the surface-ornament of 
the bone is of the same character as that of the remains alluded 
to. This jaw, which is a left mandible, is quite perfect in 
front; but the proximal extremity is broken away. The part 
that remains is upwards of seven inches long, and an inch and 
five-eighths wide ; the margins are nearly parallel ; the alveolar 
border is pretty straight, but rises up a little in front, which is 
rounded. About an inch behind the anterior extremity, a 
large stout laniary tooth is placed on this elevated part; it is 
slightly recurved, but the apex is gone. What remains mea- 


Fossil Fish from the Newsham Coal-shale. 267 


sures an inch in length; the base is broad, being quite five- 
eighths of an inch wide; and the upper, broken extremity is 
three-eighths of an inch across. When perfect, this tooth 
could not be less than an inch and five-eighths in length, as is 
proved by comparing it with a perfect tooth of the same size 
at the base. The base is deeply folded, the folds being rounded 
and covered with minute, sharp, raised strie, which pass up- 
wards and die gradually out as they approach the broken 
extremity. 

Along the alveolar border there are nine small teeth, three- 
eighths of an inch long; they have much the character of the 
large laniary tooth, exhibiting the same minute characteristic 
striation, but do not seem to be folded at the base. The first 
of these is about a quarter of an inch behind the large tooth ; 
the next two are about the same distance apart from each 
other and from the first tooth; the fourth, fifth, and sixth are 
divided from these and from each other by a space of five- 
eighths of an inch; the seventh is a little more than one-eighth 
of an inch from the sixth, and a quarter of an inch from the 
ninth, which is an inch and a quarter from the broken extre- 
mity of the mandible. 

The whole surface of the dentary bone is covered with small 
rough tubercles, which have a tendency to run in lines, pro- 
ducing vermicular grooves. This peculiar character of bone- 
surface at once associates our mandibular fragment with the 
remains already referred to, and supposed to be those of Lhi- 
zodus, and for a description of which we must content our- 
selves, on the present occasion, with referrig to our paper 
“On Reptiles and Fishes from the Shales of the Northumber- 
land Coal-field”’ (Ann. Nat. Hist. ser. 4. vol. i. p. 346). But 
we may remark that among these remains are many well- 
marked fragments and several perfect crescentic gill-plates or 
opercula, the largest being six inches in length; but one re- 
cently acquired is seven inches long; and a broken specimen 
in our possession could not have measured much under eight 
inches when perfect. There are also described along with 
these remains two or three jugular plates six inches long; and 
these are associated with a number of the body-scales, three 
inches in diameter, usually supposed to be those of Rhizodus. 

Here, then, we have the crescentic opercula usually attri- 
buted to Rhizodus, and jugular plates, with many other bones, 
all having the surface-ornament similar to that assigned to 
that fossil, and associated with the body-scales described as 
belonging to it—all occurring in a locality where the unmis- 
takable tooth of the large Rhizodus has never yet been found. 
And in this locality another large tooth occurs, with peculiar 

18* 


268 Mr. W.38. Kent on a new Species of Sagitta 


characters, and has now been found attached to a jaw the 
surface-ornament of which perfectly accords with that of the 
above-mentioned remains. However it may be with Rhizodus, 
it would therefore seem impossible not to adopt the conclusion 
that all these specimens belong to one and the same fish ; and 
the tooth proves that they can have nothing to do with Rii- 
zodus. For this fish, then, so characterized, and which seems 
to us to be generically as well as specifically new, we propose 
the name Archichthys sulcidens. 

We must add, before concluding this note, that the teeth of 
our new fish sometimes measure two and a half inches in length 
and are upwards of an inch wide at the base, and that upwards 
of a score of specimens of it have occurred at Newsham. It is 
therefore pretty certain that they never attain the dimensions 
of those of Rhizodus, from which they can always be distin- 
guished by their rotundity, the total absence of cutting- 
edges, and the fine striation of the surface, though they are 
folded at the base in a manney similar to those of that great 
enigma. 

We may also add that thirteen opercular plates have been 
found, some being quite perfect and in excellent condition. 
The scales, too, are not by any means rare in the same loca- 
lity. The remains, then, of this fish being so abundant, the 
non-occurrence of the large Rhizodus-tooth is very significant. 


XX VIII.—On a new Species of Sagitta from the South Pacific 
(S. tricuspidata). By Wm.8. Kent, F.Z.8., F.R.M.S., of 


the Geological Department, British Museum. 


Some months since, Mr. T. J. Moore, the able Conservator of 
the Free Public Museum, Liverpool, received from the South 
Pacific, in company with Leptocephali and an infinite number 
of other oceanic forms (the produce of surface-dredging on the 
high seas), certain organisms of such a fish-hke outward ap- 
pearance, that they were consigned to the hands of a cele- 
brated ichthyologist for identification. The peculiar armature 
of their cephalic region plainly indicated, however, that, if 
fish, they were very aberrant representatives of the class. 

The privilege of examining them having been afforded me, 
the idea at once suggested itself that they belonged to that in- 
teresting group, most closely approximating to the Annelida, 
designated by Professor Huxley the Cheetognatha, and of 
which Sagitta constitutes the single genus. 

Subsequent investigation substantiated the correctness of 
the inference primarily arrived at, and at the same time de- 


from the South Pacific. 269 


monstrated that this form, while presenting all the characters 
essential to Sagztta, possessed others which seemed to entitle 
it to be ranked as a species distinct from all those that had 
been previously described. 

The most recent and exhaustive synopsis of this genus is 
given in the pages of the ‘ Quarterly Journal of Microscopical 
Science’ for 1856, by Prof. Busk. In this synopsis Mr. Busk 
gives the characters of seven distinct species; with none 
of these, however, have I found it possible to associate the 
form to be here introduced. 

This species, for which I shall here propose the name of 
Sagitta tricuspidata (for reasons to be hereafter explained), 
is of large dimensions, measuring very little short of an inch 
and a half in its entire length; in regard to size it approaches 
S. lyra, but it is found, on closer comparison, to be very 
distinct from that species. In Sagztta lyra the two pairs of 
lateral fins are described as being apparently continuous 
with each other, while at the same time the portions belong- 
ing to the anterior set are much larger than those belonging 
to the posterior ones, and extend far forward. In S. trv- 
cusptdata, on the other hand, the two pairs of fins are dis- 
tinctly separate, and the anterior ones do not extend beyond 
the posterior half of the lateral margin of the animal’s body, 
and are of smaller dimensions than the two hinder ones. In 
this respect it seems more closely to resemble Sagitta bipunc- 
tata; but in the armature of the cephalic region, which forms 
the most striking and important character of this species, it is 
found to differ essentially, not only from the two species al- 
ready referred to, but from all Sagztte that have been hitherto 
described. 

In all these this armature is described as consisting of two 
elements :—in the first place, of an outer series of large curved 
corneous hooks or “ falces,”’ which are transversely movable, 
and bound the lateral margin of the head on either side; and, 
in the second place, of an interior set of smaller hooks or 
“denticles,” disposed in two series, one behind the other, on 
either side of the median line, and immediately in front of the 
buccal orifice. 

In VS. tricuspidata the large lateral falces are greatly deve- 
loped, as indicated in the accompanying woodcut; but the 
interior series or denticles are almost entirely aborted, or, at 
most, represented in a very rudimentary condition—the only 
structures in any way homologous to these being, first, 
three stylate sete set on a slightly raised prominence situ- 
ated on either side of the anterior portion of the head (see 
fig. 2, a), and, again, a single solitary seta occupying a position 


270 Mr. W.S. Kent on a new Species of Sagitta 


midway between these and the large lateral falces (fig. 2, d) ; 
and it is in reference to the first-mentioned of these structural 
peculiarities that the specific name of tricuspidata has been 
applied to it. ; 

This peculiar armature of the head, just described, is the 
more easily appreciated when compared with that of Sagitta 
bipunctata, represented in fig. 3, and sharply separates it from 
that or any other recorded species. 


Fig. 1. Sagitta tricuspidata, nat. size: a, alimentary track ; 0, an ovary ; 
sp, orifice of one of the spermatic cavities. 

Fig. 2, Head of the same, viewed from beneath, considerably enlarged : 
a& 6b, the modified denticles; c, the lateral falces. 


Fig. 3. The same region, under like conditions, of Sagitta bypunctata. 
(After Busk.) 


In technical language, the characters of this new form may 
be briefly drawn up as follows :— 


Sagitta tricuspidata, sp. nov. 


Body long, somewhat stout. Caudal region one-fifth of the 
length of the entire body, exclusive of the head. Lateral fins 
distinctly separate from one another ; the anterior pair smaller 
than the posterior. Caudal fin moderately large. Falces bound- 
ing the lateral margins of the head, eight in number on either 
side, those occupying a median position being much the largest. 
The anterior margin of the head bearing a slight prominence 
on either side of the median line, and in which are inserted 
three stylate sete, a similar solitary seta also occupying a 
central position on each side between these and the lateral 
falces. 

Entire length of the body 36 millims.; greatest breadth of 
the same 5 millims, 

Habitat. The South Pacific. 


The integument of this species, as preserved in spirit, was 
smooth and very transparent, and appeared to be quite devoid 


from the South Pacific. 271 


of the fine sete scattered over its surface or arranged in fasci- 
cles which have been observed in Sagitta bipunctata and other 
allied species ; itis possible, however, that these latter were pre- 
sent when the animal was alive, their extreme tenuity and their 
slender attachment to the surface of the integument rendering 
them exceedingly liable to become detached. One specimen, 
when submitted to dissection, exhibited most clearly the pe- 
culiar and characteristic nervous system described by Professor 
Huxley, and which induced that eminent comparative anato- 
mist to refer this aberrant genus to the Annulose section of 
the Invertebrata, and to consider it most closely allied to 
the Annelida in that section. This nervous system consists 
essentially, in the first place, of a single ganglion lying 
in the abdominal region, from which proceeds both forwards 
and backwards a pair of lateral chords, the posterior ones ter- 
minating separately in fimbriated extremities, and the anterior 
ones uniting with each other above the cesophagus so as to 
form an hexagonal cerebral ganglion, which gives off two 
processes, said by Krohn to terminate in the muscles which 
effect the motion of the falces, and two others which, passing 
backwards for a short distance, dilate at their extremities and 
form the optic ganglia. 

The ovaries in the specimens examined were very large 
and distinct, measuring in one instance one-third of the entire 
length of the animal’s body, and demonstrated moreover that 
the animal had arrived at its adult condition. 

Since Mr. Busk published his monograph of the genus, 
already referred to, he has also recorded, in the pages of the 
same journal (1858), the particulars of the development of this 
interesting genus, as elucidated by the researches of Gegen- 
baur, but which had previously been involved in much obscu- 
rity. That astute naturalist, by confining pregnant indivi- 
duals of S. bipunctata and other species from the Mediterra- 
nean in glass receptacles, obtained ova which were found to 
develope immediately into the adult form without undergoing 
any metamorphosis. ‘These ova or spawn were enclosed in a 
common gelatinous investiture, and in this respect likewise 
showed their affinity to the Annelida rather than to the Mol- 
lusea, of which latter class, in the earlier part of their history, 
the Sagitte had previously been looked upon as aberrant 
representatives. 

Subjected to a high power of the microscope, the edges of 
the falces of S. tricuspidata are found to be perfectly smooth 
and entire, and this in contradistinction to those of S. serrato- 
dentata, of which the inner edges are described as being 
serrated for about one-half of their length. 


272 M. N. Pringsheim on the Pairing of Zoospores. 


As regards the systematic position and significance of the 
species here introduced, it would seem, in the modification of 
its denticles, to indicate a slightly closer relationship to the 
ordinary forms of the Annelida than the other representatives 
of the genus, stylate sete set in elevated prominences being 
of such general occurrence throughout the Hrrantia and 


Tubicola. 


XXIX.—On the Pairing of Zoospores, the Morphologically 
Fundamental form of Reproduction in the Vegetable Kingdom. 
By N. PRINGSHEIM*. 


THE author states that he has previously shown, from obser- 
vations on some genera of the Zoosporee, that those reproduc- 
tive cells which had been considered resting-spores are the 
female reproductive organs. The male organs in some genera 
have the form of small bodies more or less differing from the 
zoospores ; in other genera they are so like the zoospores that 
they appear to be only smaller forms of the latter. 

The views thence derived with regard to the multiplication 
and reproduction of these plants might be assumed to be ap- 
plicable to all those Zoosporee in which two forms of zoospores 
are known, and in which the existence of resting-spores is 
known or suspected. 

But in most genera of Alge in which zoospores exist, 
resting-spores have not yet been discovered ; and im those ge- 
nera in which two forms of zoospores are known, it has been 
assumed that both kinds are of the same nature, and that they 
germinate without any sexual act. The author has shown 
that in some genera which have two kinds of zoospores and 
no resting-spores, the small zoospores, passing into a state of 
immobility, become themselves resting-spores, and that these 
resting-spores, produced by the so-called microgonidia, repro- 
duce the mother plant. 

These different views must admit of being reconciled, 
unless it be assumed that essential differences in the mode of 
increase and reproduction exist in such nearly allied plants. 
If it be not assumed that all the plants without resting-spores 
are asexual, it must follow either that their resting-spores 
remain to be discovered (which is improbable), or that in the 
Zoosporee, and in their already known organs, the sexual act 
takes place in a special manner not yet discriminated. The 


* From the ‘Monatsbericht of the Royal Academy of Sciences of 
Berlin, Oct. 1869. 


M.N. Pringsheim on the Pairing of Zoospores. 273 


existence of two kinds of zoospores in the same plant seemed 
to afford a clue to the discovery of this unknown sexual act. 

The discovery announced in this paper is that of a modifi- 
cation of the’ sexual act, forming a link between the known 
forms of reproduction, and showing that the different sexual 
products are a series of variations, passing into one another, 
of one and the same form. ‘This modification is here called 
“‘ pairing of zoospores ;”’ and the essential difference between 
this and other processes of reproduction lies in the appearance 
of motile brood-spheres*, which are externally just like the 
zoospores. 

The plant in which this modification occurs is Pandorina 
Morum, a plant the different states of which have given rise to 
a number of groundless and confusing genera, and which is 
often confounded with another nearly allied Volvocine, Eudorina 
elegans. 

Until the appearance of the phenomena introductory to re- 
production, the plants are distinguishable by the form and 
arrangement of their green cells. Pandorina has somewhat 
wedge-shaped cells. ‘The base of the wedge is turned out- 
wards; and the cells, which are in close connexion with one 
another, entirely fill the oval cavity which is enclosed by the 
general envelope of the plant. Hudorina, on the other hand, 
has spherical cells arranged in a single layer at the periphery 
of the envelope, and at regular, almost equal, distances from 
one another. The structure of the cell is identical in both 
plants, and similar to that in the other Volvocinee. 

The number of cells in Pandorina is typically sixteen, oc- 
casionally less, in Hudorina thirty-two, sometimes fewer. 

Asexual reproduction takes place in Pandorina, as in other 
multicellular Volvoctnee, by the formation of a perfect young 
plant in each cell of the mother plant. By the gradual dis- 
solution of the general envelope and of the special membrane 
of the mother cells, the young plants become free and escape. 

In sexual reproduction, as in the asexual, the membrane of 
the old plant swells, and sixteen young plants are formed. 
The young plants, however, are (at least in part) not neuter, 
but sexual, and either male or female. Whether the mother 
plant is moneecious or dicecious is difficult to determine, be- 
cause the male and female plants are externally alike, and can 
hardly be distinguished with certainty during copulation. 
There is no striking difference in structure between the sexual 
and asexual plants, although, amongst the former, plants with 


* [It is difficult to translate the German word “ Befruchtungskugel.”’ 
It is used to express the spore or globular mass of protoplasm before it 
has been fertilized by the action of the spermatozoids.—TR. | 


274 M.N. Pringsheim on the Pairing of Zoospores. 


less than sixteen cells, especially with eight cells, are oftener 
produced. Moreover the dissolution of the membrane of the 
mother cell proceeds more slowly than in the case of neuter 
plants, one result of which is that the young sexual plants 
vary much in the extent of their growth, and continue united 
in groups of different sizes for a long time after their forma- 
tion, according as a greater or less number of them have hap- 
pened to become free from the gelatinous mass in which they 
were imbedded. 

As the individual groups are at first motionless, and the 
mother plant loses its cilia during the formation of the young 
ones, the entire group is at first entirely quiescent. But 
afterwards the young sexual plants, like the neuter ones, pro- 
duce upon each of their cells two cilia, which commence their 
motion as soon as the enveloping mucus admits of it; and 
thus ultimately the entire group assumes a state of active 
rotation. During the rotation of the groups the same process 
of expansion and dissolution takes place in the membrane of 
the sexual plants as occurred in the mother plant; but the 
contents of the cells of the sexual plants do not undergo divi- 
sion, but combine to form a single zoospore, which becomes 
free by the rapid dissolution of the membranes. 

In their general structure these zoospores differ in no way 
from other zoospores. At their colourless apex they exhibit, 
like other zoospores, a red body placed on one side of the apex, 
and two long vibrating cilia, by which they move in the 
manner common to zoospores. 

The individual zoospores exhibit no marked differences, 
except that (like the sexual plants from which they spring) 
they vary in size within tolerably wide limits, but not in a 
manner to indicate the existence of two different sorts. 

Amongst the groups of isolated zoospores of different sizes, 
some are at last seen to approach one another in pairs. They 
come into contact at their anterior hyaline apex, coalesce with 
one another, and assume a shape resembling a figure of 8*. 
The constriction which marks their original separation dis- 
appears by degrees; and the paired zoospores form at last a 
single large green globe, showing at the circumference no 
trace of their original separation. It may be seen, however, 
that the globe is larger than the individual neighbouring zoo- 
spores, that it has a strikingly enlarged colourless mouth-spot, 
with two red bodies on the right and left, and that it is fur- 
nished with four vibrating cilia originating in pairs near the 


* [The German expression is “ biscuit-artige Gestalt,” but this, if trans- 
lated literally, would convey no idea to an English reader.—TR. | 


M.N. Pringsheim on the Pairing of Zoospores. 275 


two red spots. ‘The four cilia, however, soon become motion- 
less, and, together with the red spots, disappear. 

This act of, conjugation occupies some minutes, 7. e. from 
the first contact of the zoospores to the formation of the green 
globe. The latter becomes the oospore, which, after growing 
slightly larger and assuming a red colour, germinates after a 
long period of rest, and brings forth a new Pandorina. 

There is hardly any appreciable difference, except in size, 
and that to no reliable extent, between the male and female 
zoospores. Most frequently a small zoospore pairs with a 
larger one ; but two of equal size (either of the larger or smaller 
forms) often unite. Probably both the females and the males 
vary much in size, the former more so than the latter. 

With regard to the entire plants from which the zoospores 
are produced, there is little doubt that those of the largest size 
are females; but the sex of the smaller and middle-sized ones 
cannot be determined with any certainty. 

The germination of the oospore is like that of other Volvo- 
cinece, especially resembling in its early stage the germination 
of the resting-spores produced by the microgonidia of Hydro- 
dictyon utriculatum. 'The oospore bursts and produces a 
single large zoospore (in rare cases two, or even three), which 
divides into sixteen cells and becomes a young Pandorina. 

(The author then remarks that Cohn (in Volvox) and Carter 
(in Volvow and Hudorina) describe the spermatozoids as differmg 
materially from the zoospores, and that they speak of the 
brood-spheres as globular resting-cells. Whilst suggesting 
some possible modes of reconciling the observations of Cohn 
and Carter with his own on Pandorina, the author admits that 
further investigation of Volvox and Eudorina is necessary. | 

A comparison of the relations between the sexual act in 
Pandorina Morum and that in other plants seems to afford a 
clear insight into the gradual changes in the sexual products 
and the sexual act in plants. 

Hitherto the conjugation of the Zygosporee has appeared to 
have no affinity with the sexual act in other Alge; and these 
plants seemed, therefore, to form a sharply defined separate 

rroup. 

; (ensidextne that in most plants the sexual organs differ 
much in form and size, the doubts as to the copulation of the 
Zoosporee seemed reasonable. The pairing of the zoospores 
which takes place in Pandorina with hardly even an incipient 
differentiation of the sexual organs, seems to be a fresh in- 
stance of the act of copulation occurring in plants with motile 
sexual organs, and it forms, therefore, a bridge between the 
Zygosporee and the Zoosporee ; and perhaps a more complete 


276 M.N. Pringsheim on the Pairing of Zoospores. 


knowledge of the mode of conversion of the microgonidia into 
resting-spores in the Chetophoree, and especially in Drapar- 
naldia, will disclose the peculiar bond of union between these 
two divisions of the Algae. 

Whilst this pairing is connected, on the one hand, with the 
copulation in the Zygosporee, it is still more closely allied, on 
the other hand, with the known sexual process in the Zoo- 
sporee. 

Comparing the sexual act in Pandorina and Cdogonium, 
we find that the anterior, colourless, protoplasmic mass of the 
brood-sphere of Gdogonium, in front of which, as in Pando- 
rina, the coalescence with the spermatozoid takes place, is 
identical with the so-called “ mouth” (Mund-Stelle) of one of 
the two pairing zoospores of Pandorina, and with the so-called 
“mouth” of the directly germinating zoospores of Gidogonium. 
It may be taken to be undeniable that the resting brood- 
spheres of Gidogonium, as well as those of Vaucherta and 
Coleochete, to which those of other Alge which have a less 
defined or hardly perceptible germ-spot are closely allied, are 
only unciliated resting-forms of zoospores. 

But the analogy of the structure of the brood-sphere and 
the zoospore may be extended far beyond the Alge. 

It would seem to be a result of the foregoing that that 
which in the embryonic vesicle of the Phenogams has been 
called by Schacht the filamentary process (/aden-Apparat *) 
is an analogue of the colourless “locus of impregnation” 
(Befruchtungstelle) in the brood-spheres of Algze, and of the 
mouth or germ-spot of the zoospores. The canal-cell observed 
in the central cell of the archegonium of Salvinia, and which 
seems to occur also universally in mosses and ferns, is a 
corresponding organ. The word “ germ-spot”’ (Keimfleck) 
would be a convenient word to express the locus of impregna- 
tion of female plants in general, which term would include 
the “mouth” of the zoospores, the colourless protoplasmic 


* [“ Faden-Apparat” is the term used by Schacht to describe the ante- 
rior portion of the germinal vesicle in Crocus Watsonia and some other 
plants. He imagines that it exists in all plants in which the pollen-tube 
does not penetrate the embryo-sac, and he describes it as consisting of 
delicate cellulose threads radiating downwards. Schacht’s observations 
have been questioned by Hofmeister, but were partly confirmed by the 
late Professor Henfrey. The reader may refer to Schacht’s papers on the 
impregnation of Gladiolus segetum (Bot. Zeitung, Jan. 15, 1858), on the 
impregnation of Crocus vernus (Regensb. Flora, Sept. 21,1858), and on 
the impregnation of Santaluwm album (Pringsheim’s ‘ Jahrbiicher fiir wiss. 
Bot. vol. iv. p. 1), also to Hofmeister’s remarks in the ‘ Bonplandia’ for 
1856, p. 287, and in Pringsheim’s ‘ Jahrbiicher fiir wiss. Bot.’ vol. i. p. 162, 
and to Professor Henfrey’s paper on “the Development of the Ovule of 
Santalum album,” in Trans. A in, Soc. vol. xxii.—TR. | 


M.N. Pringsheim on the Pairing of Zoospores. 277 


mass at the fore end of the brood-spheres, the canal-cell of 
the higher Cryptogams, and the filamentary process (/aden- 
Apparat) i in the embryonic vesicle of Phenogams. 

Those cases amongst the Alge where, as in Gidogonium 
and Pandorina, the entire mass of the brood-sphere, including 
the whole of the germ-spot, is employed in the formation of 
the embryo, are introductory to the procreative act in Vauw- 
cheria, where a portion of the germ-spot is pushed away and 
cast off before impregnation ; and through Vaucherta and the 
analogous formative process in Coleochete the passage is 
direct to the canal-cell and the filamentary process. Thus the 
zoospore appears as the ground-form of the embryonal rudi- 
ments in the vegetable kingdom; and in the formation of 
these there is a striking analogy to the phenomena which, in 
the formation of the embryo in animals, are distinguished as 
total and partial segmentation. 

It may also be worth while to call attention to the fact that, 
in comparing embryonic vesicles and zoospores, the position of 
the brood-sphere before impregnation throws light upon the 
direction of the root of the embryo in those plants in which 
an embryo is the result of the procreative act, inasmuch as 
the germ-spot, which from Gdogoniwm up to the Phenogams 
is without exception turned towards the sexual aperture, cor- 
responds, as the zoospores show, to the foot of the germ. 

ut it being the fact (as is shown by the spermatozoids of 
(dogonium and Pandorina) that the differences in form which 
have been hitherto attempted to be established between sper- 
matozoids and zoospores have only a relative value as modifi- 
cations of the same primary form, it will follow that the form 
of,the zoospore, in which even the oldest observers noticed a 
connecting link between the vegetable and animal kingdoms, 
may be recognized as the ground-form of all reproductive 
bodies in plants, and thus an embryological unity may be 
distinguished in the vegetable kingdom, unless the mode of 
copulation of the Floridee and the Fungi should turn out to 
be very divergent, as to which further observations must 
decide. 

It is probable that a number of ill-understood phenomena 
and of unintelligible contradictions of reliable botanists as to 
the form and colour of microgonidia, as to the number of their 
cilia, as to their behaviour after the cessation of their mobility, 
and, lastly, probably, as to double spores, may be fully ex- 
plained by the supposition of the process of pairing. 

It should now be the object of those observers who are oc- 
cupied in investigating the development of Alge to look for 
the phenomenon of “ pairing,” or for motile brood-spheres, in 


278 On the Relations of the Wasp and Rhipiphorus. 


all those Zoosporee in which hitherto zoospores only have 
been found. 

The following is a short summary of the results of this 
paper :— 

1. In the division of the Zoosporew there are to be found 
motile brood-spheres which appear in the form of zoospores. 

2. The resting brood-spheres are more or less abnormal 
forms of the zoospore, devoid of cilia. 

3. The colourless anterior end of the brood-spheres of Alege, 
the “ canal-cell’’ of the higher Cryptogams, and the “ fila- 
mentary process” of Phenogams are structures which are 
morphologically identical with the so-called mouth, germ- 
spot, or, what is the same thing, the foot of the zoospore. 

4, By analogy to the phenomena of total and partial seg- 
mentation in animal ova, it happens in plants that sometimes 
the entire mass of the brood-sphere is appropriated to the 
formation of the embryo, sometimes only a portion of it; in 
the latter case there occurs an entire (?) or partial casting-off 
of the colourless foot of the brood-sphere, which casting-off 
occurs sometimes before (as in Vaucheria, Coleochete, and 
Salvinia), sometimes after (?) impregnation (as in Pheno- 
gams). 

5. The remarkable phenomenon that the zoospore is the 
morphologically fundamental state of the reproductive organs, 
is an argument for the embryological unity of the vegetable 
kingdom, and shows that there is a morphological as well as 
a histological poimt of contact between it and the animal 
kingdom. 


XXX.—A last word in Reply to Dr. Chapman ana Wie Fre- 
derick Smith on the Relations of the Wasp and Rhipiphorus. 
By AnpREw Murray. 


THE subject has now been so fully ventilated that further 
discussion seems unnecessary. We have reached that stage 
when little more can be said on either side until further 
observation shall have given us fresh materials to argue from. 
The discussion which has taken place, however, has been of 
good service in clearing away irrelevant matter, and showing 
us where the pinch really les. I trust that Dr. Chapman 
may have every success in his researches during the ensuing 
summer; and should he succeed in proving me to be in the 
wrong, | promise to make him my fullest and handsomest 
acknowledgments. 
To Mr. Smith I have still an answer to make. 


Mr. H. G. Seeley on Ornithopsis. 279 


In the postscript to my last paper I said :—‘“ I had also the 
pleasure of showing to Mr. Smith my specimens of pupe [of 
ELhipiphori| with the cast skin still sticking to their tail, and 
I think he will no longer” &e. 

In his reply Mr. Smith writes, “The last paragraph of the 
postscript 1s entirely suppositional. Mr. Murray has not 
shown me any of his specimens.” 

Mr. Smith’s memory is as much at fault as his courtesy. 
According to my recollection, when I went to see his speci- 
mens, I took my own with me to him at the British Museum, 
and then and there showed them to him. They were in small 
flat glass phials, preserved in Canada balsam; and I have a 
vivid impression on my mind of Mr. Smith examining them 
against the light with his pocket-lens, when I pointed out the 
cast skins adhering to the tails; and that he then*made some 
remark which led me to conclude that he accepted the in- 
ference I drew from them ; but, as it was not made explicitly, 
I stated this merely as my belief. 

I scarcely think that I could have dreamed all this; and as 
a visit to the British Museum with specimens in hand is for 
me a sufficiently rare event to make some impression on my 
mind, whilst with Mr. Smith it must be the exception to have 
a day pass without numbers of visitors bringing specimens for 
examination, I do not think that I am any way unreasonable 
in claiming for my positive recollection (positive in its double 
sense) a preference over his negative assertion—that is, always 
supposing it to be put as a matter of memory, which, notwith- 
standing his peculiar mode of expressing himself, I do not 
doubt Mr. Smith to mean it to be. If, however, it is as a 
matter of veracity that Mr. Smith really puts it, I can only 
make him my bow once and for all, and leave him in the en- 
joyment of his own opinion, consoling myself with the assured 
conviction that it will be shared by no one but himself. 


XXXI.—On Ornithopsis, a Gigantic Animal of the Pterodac- 
tyle kind from the Wealden. By Harry G. SEELEY, F.G.S., 
Assistant to Prof. Sedgwick in the Woodwardian Museum 
of the University of Cambridge *. 


THE two vertebre to which I would here call attention are in 
the British Museum ; other remains allied to them were shown 
to me with much courtesy by the Rev. Mr. Fox, of Brixton. 
From these materials I am led to infer the existence of a new 


* Communicated by the Author, having been read before the Cambridge 
Philosophical Society, Noy. 22, 1869. 


280 Mr. H. G. Seeley on Ornithopsis, 


order of animals. One of the British-Museum fossils is from 
Tilgate ; the other, probably from the Isle of Wight, is labelled 
South-east of England. They are of size and structure and 
texture such that both might well have belonged to the same 
kind of organism; and as no other remains are known to 
which either bone approximates, they are here considered to 
indicate the same animal. One vertebra is from the lower part 
of the neck, and the other from the lower part of the back. 
When perfect, the neck-vertebra can scarcely have measured 
less, from the back to the front of the centrum, than ten inches. 
The neck would appear to have been carried erect, after the man- 
ner of birds. If seven cervical vertebrae were to be presumed 
(and there can scarcely have been fewer), it would give a neck 
from four to five feet long, and an animal of a minimum height 
of from ten“to twelve feet, while itis not impossible that it may 
have been twice or three times as high. Both vertebra agree 
in being constructed after the lightest and airiest plan, such as 
is only seen in Pterodactyles and birds; and they agree in 
possessing pneumatic foramina, which are an avian and orni- 
thosaurian peculiarity. The foramina are of enormous size, 
and approximate to those of Pterodactyles rather than to those 
of birds. Seeing that in living animals these foramina exist 
for the prolongation of the peculiarly avian respiratory system 
into the bones, and that no other function is known for them, 
we are compelled to infer for this animal bird-like heart and 
lungs and brain. Both in Pterodactyles and birds one type of 
brain coexists with these foramina; therefore there is no 
reason to suspect a different organization for these specimens. 

Our animal is therefore clearly ornithic. But it does not 
conform closely in the shape of vertebree to either Pterodactyles 
or birds. And from the bones preserved, and many other in- 
dications of allied animals which I have seen from the Wealden 
and Potton Sands, I anticipate that it will form the type of a 
new order of animals which will bridge over something of the 
interval between birds and Pterodactyles, and probably mani- 
fest some affinity with the Dinosaurs. ' 

In view of these considerations it is impossible not to recall 
with interest the gigantic ornithic footprints described by 
Mr. Beccles and Mr. Tylor from the Wealden. They might 
not improbably have been the tracks of this animal. 


The Mantellian specimen in the British Museum, numbered 
28632, is apparently a late cervical vertebra, with the centrum 
about nine inches from front to back, six inches from side to 
side, and about seven inches from the base of the neural canal 
to the base of the vertebra. It is much worn, the neural arch 


a Gigantic Animal of the Pterodactyle kind. 281 


being too much abraded to give evidence of zygapophyses or 
neural spine, or the extent of the transverse processes. 

The posterior articulation is vertically ovate and well cupped; 
seen from the side, its outline is concave, so as to admit (ap- 
parently) of lateral motion upon the adjacent centrum. In 
tront the body of the vertebra 1s rather larger than it is behind, 
and convex; but it has been worn so that the whole of the 
external layer of bone over the anterior articulation has been 
removed: it was of paper thinness, as in the Pterodactyles. 
Wherever this external film is wanting is seen either an abso- 
lute cavity or enormous honeycomb-like cells of irregular 

olygonal form, for the most part long in the direction of the 
seat of the centrum, and divided by exceedingly thin and 
compact films of bone, which extend towards the articular 
ends of the vertebra. 

In the middle of the upper part of the side of the centrum, 
below the level of the neural canal, is an enormous subtrian- 
gular hole lined with a continuation of the external bone for 
some distance inward. It is more than a third of the length 
of the centrum, longer than high; its upper angle is above 
the level of the base of the neural canal; and it narrows to- 
wards the concave end of the centrum. This large hole, be- 
tween three and four inches long, is situate precisely as are 
the pneumatic foramina of Pterodactyles, and in this specimen 
is regarded as a pneumatic foramen which supplied the bone 
with air from the lungs after the plan of the class of birds. 

In front of it the combined centrum and neural arch widen 
rapidly, as though for the attachment of a rib, though possibly 
the thickening may be only such as characterizes the neck- 
vertebrae of birds. 

The external surface is dense and smooth, and gently concave 
from front to back, where the margin of the posterior cup is 
prominent. From above downward the sides are convex, and 
approximate in a natural compression so as to form an inferior 
mesial antero-posterior ridge. 

The neural canal posteriorly is subovate, higher than wide, 
and about three inches high. 

The lateral compression of the centrum is altogether avian ; 
and in the anterior enlargement it resembles birds rather than 
Pterodactyles, though herein recalling certain Dinosaurs. The 
opisthoecelous centrum may be matched among mammals, 
Dinosaurs, and a few natatorial birds. 


In the ‘Geology of the South-east of England,’ Dr. Man- 
tell figured, at pl. 2. fig. 5, a bone which he describes as the 
tympanic bone of Jguanodon, at pp. 805, 306 of that work. 


Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 4. Vol. v. 19 


282 _ My. H. G. Seeley on Ornithopsis. 


He compares the fossil to the tympanic bone of Mosa- 
saurus, with which it certainly has no near resemblance. In 
the Paleontographical Society’s volume for 1854 (Dinosauria, 
part 2), Professor Owen figured a similar bone, which he 
agreed with Dr. Mantell in regarding as the tympanic bone of 
Iguanodon (p. 18), but suggests that it may possibly belong 
to Cetiosaurus or Streptospondylus. ‘This specimen I inter- 
ret as the lower dorsal or lumbar vertebra of Ornithopsis. 

Dr. Mantell’s description is as follows :— 

‘“‘Tn these bones the body bears some resemblance to a ver- 
tebra, but the large cells or hollows which pervade it through- 
out readily distinguish it; it forms a thick pillar or column, 
which is contracted in the middle, and terminates at both ex- 
tremities in an elliptical and nearly flat surface: two lateral 
processes or ale pass off obliquely, and are small in proportion 
to the size of the column.... From the great size of the body 
in the fossil and the extreme thinness of its walls, the tym- 
panic cellule must have been of considerable magnitude.” 

In this description there is not one character which can 
reasonably be presumed to characterize the quadrate bone of 
Iguanodon, or which is inconsistent with the identification of 
the fossil as a lumbar vertebra; for the cellular character, 
which weighed with Dr. Mantell against making such a de- 
termination, is seen, from the previous description of a cervical 
vertebra, to be evidence in its favour. The following charac- 
ters are shown in Professor Owen’s or, rather, Mr. Dinkel’s 
figure. The centrum, from seven to eight inches long, shows 
large internal air-cells and a dense outer film, like the speci- 
men 28632. Posteriorly the articular surface is about four 
inches deep, subcircular, and slightly hollowed. Anteriorly 
the centrum seems to be larger; but the articular surface is not 
preserved. 'The centrum is subcylindrical, expanded towards 
both ends, so as externally to be concave from front to back 
all round. 

The pneumatic foramen is placed towards the anterior end 
of the vertebra, between the centrum and the neural arch. It 
is from two to three inches in length, compressed behind, 
about an inch high, and rounded in front. 

The lunate mass, in Prof. Owen’s figure, above the pneu- 
matic foramen, is the transverse process. It is an exceedingly 
thin and dense film, only comparable to the transverse process 
in similar vertebre of birds. 

The affinities of this specimen are in accordance with the 
avian type. If supposed to belong to an animal of like species 
with the cervical vertebra, it would resemble Pterodactyles in the 
smaller size of the back relatively to the neck; in the elonga- 


Mr. H. G. Seeley on Zoocapsa dolichorhamphia. 283 


tion of the centrum it resembles the lower dorsal vertebree of 
birds. 


I have made this note, not as a sufficient description of the 
specimens to which it relates, but in the hope that other parts 
of this and allied animals may be made available for scientific 
description by those collectors who possess them, and that 
they will so make known a group of animals as marvellous in 
size and organization as any which have enriched the records 
of paleontology. With the fossil I would associate the name 
of my friend Dr. Hulke, chronicling the species as Ornithopsis 


Hulkez. 


XXXII.—On Zoocapsa dolichorhamphia, a Sessile Cirripede 
From the Lias of LymeRegis. By Harry G.SEevey, F.G.S., 
Assistant to Professor Sedgwick in the Woodwardian Mu- 
seum of the University of Cambridge. 


Amone some Lias fossils obtained at Lyme Regis by Mr. 
Henry Keeping, for the Woodwardian Museum, was one 
which exposed a portion of the tergum of a sessile Cirripede. 
It rested in a hard matrix of calcareous clay, immediately upon 
a layer of Pentacrinite-limestone; and it was not till after 
some days of dissecting that I had the pleasure of laying bare 
the entire tergum and entire scutum of the oldest known repre+ 
sentative of the group. Every way it is a remarkable fossil: 
the scutum closely resembles that of the pedunculate Cirri- 
pede Scalpellum; the tergum, by its long beak, recalls certain 
Balani; while the emargination of its basal border points 
strongly to another beaked type, Elmindus. Yet as it fortu- 
nately happens that the internal aspect of these opercular 
valves is exposed, it is manifest that neither valve displays 
the muscular sears which distinguish the Balanide; and herein 
they resemble the Verrucidee. But since the shape and arti- 
culation of the valves offer no resemblance to Verruca, it is 
open to speculation whether an inner porcellanous layer of 
shell has disappeared, and so obliterated the muscular impres- 
sions—a supposition which is, perhaps, supported by the scu- 
tum being rough and cancellate internally, seemingly from 
reproducing the outside ornament. From the tergum and 
scutum being in juxtaposition, and these valves being only 
two in number, there is some support for a Verrucian hypo- 
thesis; yet from the articulation of the valves conforming to 
the straight-hinge type of Balanus, it is probable that, unless 
we have here a new family type (as I incline to believe), its 
place is among the Balanide. 
15% 


284 Mr. H. G. Seeley on Zoocapsa dolichorhamphia. 


The scutum is four-sided, as in Scalpellum, but wider from 
the tergal margin to the occludent margin along the straight 
base than it is high from the basal margin to the apex. The 
basal margin is slightly inflected. The occludent margin, as 
in Ooronula, is moderately concave from base» to apex, the 
extremity of which is not exposed: in the living genera it is 
straight or convex. This margin is destitute of the inflexion 
so characteristic of recent sessile Cirripedes, and therein is 
more like Scalpellum. The two remaining margins are 
straight, make a large angle with each other; and both join 
the tergum. The upper margin, seemingly the longer of the 
two, fits against the beak of the tergum; the tergal margin 
articulates with the tergum in the usual way. Externally the 
scutum was slightly convex and cancellate. The four-sided 
form is clearly a consequence of the prolongation of the beak 
of the tergum, and therefore no evidence of affinity, since the 
margin, which here is properly tergal, in Scalpellum would be 
lateral and be presented towards the upper latus. The species 
of Balanus with a beaked tergum have the scutum only three- 
sided, because the beak makes a slightly curved continuation 
of the tergal margin, and not an angular bend in it. 

The tergum is an irregular, subtriangular, trilobed plate, 
formed of three unequal triangular parts, whose apices termi- 
nate with a long subcylindrical apex of uniform width, which 
is bent slightly inward so as to touch the scutum, when that 
plate meets it at an angle, as is common among the Balanide. 
On the basal margin is a deep emargination in its middle 
third, in the place where the spur is developed in Balanus ; so 
that in this respect it rather approximates to a species of 
Elminius. This notch is at the termination of a wide depressed 
groove, triangular in outline, forming the middle third of the 
plate; it widens towards the basal margin, as is characteristic 
of the tergum in most of the Balanidee. The third of the base 
towards the carinal margin, however, is much prolonged ; it 
widens, and is rounded at its termination. The carinal mar- 
gin is straight, except just below the origin of the apex, where 
it widens so as to present a prominent angle. The scutal 
margin is slightly inflected, much narrower than in living 
Balani, with the articulation formed by a very narrow arti- 
cular groove, margined on the outside by an equally narrow 
articular furrow, which are adjacent to and extend the whole 
length of the scutal margin up to the apex. 

Projecting from under the tergum is seen the greater part 
of another Cirripede plate. It is evidently not the other scu- 
tum, being smaller, nor the other tergum, nor one of the com- 
partments ; yet, from its association with the valves described, 


Bibliographical Notice. 285 


it is difficult not to regard it as part of the same individual, 
in which case it can only be the upper latus, and have 
been applied to the carinal margin of the tergum below the 
projecting angle already referred to. Its exposed exterior 
surtace is flat, and shows broad, slightly elevated, wavy ribs, 
crossed by faint vertical lines of growth. The two sides seen 
are straight and meet at an angle of 45°. 

On the other side of the tergum, and partly covered by it, 
is an unsymmetrical trilobed shelly mass, which I suspect to 
be one of the compartments. If so, the subparallel curved 
grooves upon it remind one rather of Verruca than of Balanus. 
But the specimen seems small for valves so large as those 
described. 

Altogether the plates preserved would incline one to suspect 
that there were no more. By no ordinary arrangement could 
the valves close the aperture, if there were six. I therefore 
incline to regard the specimen as the type of a new family in- 
termediate between Balanide and Verrucide, with peculiar 
affinities towards the Lepadide. 


BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTICE. 


Catalogus methodicus et synonymicus Henipterorum Heteropterorum 
Italie indigenorum, accedit descriptio aliquot specierum vel minus 
vel nondum cognitarum. Auctore Antonio Garsievrerti, M.D. 
Florentiz, 1869. Pp. 58. 


Tus Catalogue is the result of the study of many years, in which 
the author, a distinguished Professor in the Medical Faculty of the 
University of Turin, has devoted his special attention to the collec- 
tion of the Heteropterous Hemiptera inhabiting Italy. The work 
embraces 279 genera and 713 species, of which 162 are new to the 
Italian fauna. Interspersed in the text there are descriptions of 
40 new or little-known species. The author has added the syno- 
nyms of the insects. He has embraced the Hemiptera of the Italian 
islands as well as those of the peninsula itself—those of Corsica, 
although belonging to the French Empire, and also of Venetian 
Dalmatia, although attached to the Austrian empire ; for in matters 
appertaining to entomology it may be considered to be intimately 
connected with Italy. This Catalogue will be found to be valuable 
to entomologists. 


286 Royal Society :— 


PROCEEDINGS OF LEARNED SOCIETIES. 


ROYAL SOCIETY. 


March 24, 1870.—Lieut.-General Sir Edward Sabine, K.C.B., 
President, in the Chair, 


On the Madreporaria dredged up in the Expedition of H.M.S. 
‘Porcupine.’ By P. Martin Duncan, M.B. Lond., F.R.S., Sec. 
Geol. Soc., Professor of Geology in King’s College, London. 


Professor Wyville Thomson, Dr. Carpenter, and Mr. Gwyn Jef- 
freys have placed the collection of stony corals dredged up by them 
in the ‘ Porcupine’ Expedition in my hands for determination. 
They have kindly afforded me all the information I required con- 
cerning the localities, depths, and temperatures in which the speci- 
mens were found. 

My report has been rendered rather more elaborate than I had 
intended, in consequence of the great consideration of Professor A. 
Agassiz and Count de Pourtales in forwarding me their reports * 
and specimens relating to the deep-sea dredging off Florida and the 
Havana. 

They have enabled me to offer a comparison between the British 
and American species, which I had not hoped to do before the 
publication of this communication. 


CONTENTS. 
I. List of the species, localities, depths, temperatures. 
II. Critical notice of the species. 
ILL. Special and general conclusions. 

I. Twelve species of Madreporaria were dredged up, and the ma- 
jority came from midway between Cape Wrath and the Faroe Islands. 
Others were also found off the west coast of Ireland. Many varieties 
of the species were also obtained, and some forms which hitherto 
haye been considered specifically distinct from others, but which 
now cease to be sof. [See Table, p. 287.] 


List of species known only on the area dredged, or in the 
neighbouring seas. 

1. Amphihelia atiantica, nobis. 

2. ornata, nobis. 

3. Allopora oculina, Hhrenberg. 


List of species common to the area and to the Florida and Havana 
deep-sea faunas only. 
1. Balanophyllia socialis, Pouwrtales, sp. 
2, Amphihelia profunda, Pourtales, sp. 
3. Pliobothrus symmetricus, Pourtales, sp. 


* Contributions to the Fauna of the Gulf-stream at great depths, by 
L. F. de Pourtales, Ist & 2nd series, 1868. Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. 
Harvard College, Cambridge, Mass., Nos. 6 & 7. 

+ One specimen came from the ‘ Lightning’ Expedition. It must be 
remembered that all the deep-sea corals known to British naturalists 
were not dredged up. The Stylaster vosea, for instance, was not amongst 
the collection. 


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288 Royal Society :— } 
These forms are not known in the West-Indian Cainozoic fauna, 
and they have not been discovered in any European deposits. 
Lophohelia prolifera (var. affinis) is common to the British and 
Florida deep-sea faunas; it is found fossil in the Sicilian Ter- 
tiaries, being moreover a member of the recent fauna of the Me- 
diterranean. 


List of species common to the area and to the Mediterranean sea, 
1. Caryophyllia borealis, Fleming. 
2, Amphihelia occulata, Linneus, sp. 
3. Lophohelia prolifera, Pallas, sp. 


List of species found on the area dredged, and as fossils elsewhere. 


1. Caryophyllia borealis, Fleming. Sicilian: Miocene and 
Pliocene. 

2, Ceratocyathus ornatus, Seguenza. Sicilian: Miocene and 
Pliocene. 

3. Flabellum laciniatum, Hd. § H. Sicilian: Calabrian, Mio- 
cene and Pliocene. 

4. Lophohelia prolifera, Pallas, sp. Sicilian: Miocene and 
Pliocene. 

5. Amphihelia miocenica, Seguenza. Sicilian’: Miocene and 
Pliocene. 


The deep-sea coral-fauna of the area dredged in the ‘ Porcupine’ 
and ‘ Lightning ’ Expeditions is therefore composed of :— 


5 species which have lasted since the early Cainozoic period. 
1 Mediterranean species not known in Cainozoic deposits. 
3 species of the deep-sea fauna of Florida and Havana, 
3 indigenous species. 
12 

Two of the fossil species are represented in the recent fauna of 
the Mediterranean. 

If the species which I have absorbed into others (in consequence 
of the light thrown upon the amount of variation in the deep-sea 
corals) were counted, the fossil forms would be in all 8. 

The greatest depth from which Madreporaria were dredged was 
705 fathoms, and the lowest temperature of the water in which they 
lived was 29°°9, 

II. Caryophyllia borealis, Fleming.—Having collected a very consi- 
derable series of the Caryophyllie from the seas around Great Bri- 
tain, and having been supplied with several specimens of the Medi- 
terranean species, I had some time ago compared the whole with the 
fossil forms from the Sicilian tertiary deposits and with each other. 
The numerous specimens of Caryophyllie dredged up in Dingle Bay 
were especially interesting after I had arrived at satisfactory con- 
clusions respecting the affinities of the above-mentioned British and 
Southern-European forms. The Dingle-Bay collection presented all 


On the  Porcupine’-Expedition Madreporaria. 289 


the varicties of shapes (some of which had been deemed of specific 
value) which I had observed in the separate assemblages of specimens 
from the Mediterranean, the Sicilian tertiaries, and the British and 
Scottish seas. ~ 

A perfect series of specimens from all these localities can be so 
arranged as to show a gradual structural transition from form to 
form ; so that the most diversely shaped Caryophyllie can be linked 
together by intermediate shapes. The Caryophylha clavus and 
Caryophyllia cyathus can be united by intermediate forms, and all of 
these to Caryophyllia Smithit and Caryophyllia borealis. 

It is impossible to determine which is the oldest form ; but they all 
appear to be reproduced by variation on some part of the area 
tenanted by the section of the genus. The variability of the Caryo- 
phyllie of the Sicilian tertiary deposits is very marked; and it is 
equally so in the groups which live on disconnected spots in our 
waters. The Dingle-Bay series presents the greatest amount of 
variability, and indeed is most instructive; for by applying the 
range of it to the classification of such genera as T’rochocyathus and 
Montlivaltia a great absorption of species must ensue. 

The Dingle-Bay Caryophyllie are evidently the descendants of 
those which lived in the Western and Southern-European seas 
before those great terrestrial elevations took place which were con- 
nected with the corresponding subsidence of the circumpolar land 
and the subsequent emigration of Arctic mollusca. They are not 
closely allied to the recent West-Indian species; but they occupy a 
position in the Coral-fauna representative of them. The same re- 
mark holds good with reference to the affinities of the recent and the 
eretaceous Caryophyllie. They are not closely allied, and they 
belong to different sections of the genus; but they hold the same 
positions in the economy of the old and new distribution of animal 
life, and the recent forms are representative of the older. The 
examination of the Dingle-Bay Caryophyllie tends to prove that a 
species is really the sum of the variations of a series of forms. 

A specimen was dredged up in 705 fathoms, temp. 42°65 F., and 
it exactly resembles forms which are frequently found in 90 fathoms, 
and at a temperature slightly below that of the surface, M. Al- 
phonse Milne-Edwards obtained some Caryophyllie from the cable 
between Corsica and Algiers in 1110-1550 fathoms. The bathy- 
metrical range of these forms is therefore very great. I have placed 
the species borealis in the first place, and regard the old species C. 
clavus, C. Smithii, and C.cyathus as varieties of it. 

Ceratocyathus ornatus, Seguenza.—A_ beautiful specimen of this 
rare form was dredged up from a depth of 705 fathoms with some 
Caryophyllie and a small Jsis. The species is hitherto unknown 
except in the Sicilian miocene*. 

Flabellum laciniatum, Ed. & H.—This is the Ulocyathus arcticus 
of the late Prof. Sars. Many specimens were dredged up; but most 


* Seguenza, “ Disquisiz. Paleont. int. ai Corall. Foss.,” Mem. della 
Reale Accad. dell. Sci. Torino, serie ii. tomo xxi. 1864, 


290 Royal Society :-— 


of them were broken, in consequence of the extreme fragility and 
delicacy of the theca. There are no pali; therefore Sars’s termi- 
nology is not in accordance with the received system. The form 
was familiar to me from Seguenza’s drawing of a dilapidated Fla- 
bellum (which is always found broken*) ; and it is now evident that 
Ulocyathus must give place to Flabellum. The species links Fla- 
bellum to Desmophyllum: it is not known in the recent Mediterra- 
nean fauna. 

Lophohelia prolifera, Pallas, sp., is apparently a common coral in 
the north-western British seas. 


Temperature, 
It was dredged up in No. 5 at a depth of 364 fathoms. . 48:8 
13 ¥ 20S as ae ee 
14 $5 Tio 9. ce 
15 i wea! | ne eee 
25 Y kA Sailr eer se 
54 Oud 33 ates Shea 


and also at a depth of from 350 to 600 fathoms in the cold area to 
the north-west. 

All the specimens show great density of the calcareous skeleton ; 
and active nutrition may be inferred to have gone on, on account of 
the repeated gemmation, the large size of the calices, and the 
numerical development of the septa. Great variability occurs in 
the corallites forming a stem; and the shape of the calices is very 
diverse. 

It is very interesting to find some specimens bearing elongate 
and more or less claviform corallites with the peculiar gemmation 
of Lophohelia anthophyllites, Ellis and Solander, on some portions of 
their stem, and the usual-shaped corallites of Lophohelia prolifera 
on others. 

A separate corallum, which must be referred to Lophohelia antho- 
phyllites, Ellis and Solander, was dredged up at No. 54. 

The variation of the gemmules of several specimens is sufficiently 
great to absorb Lophohelia subcostata, Kd. & Haime ; for fragments 
of the corallum of Lophohelia prolifera exist which possess all its 
so-called specific peculiarities. 

A careful examination of Lophohelia Defrancei, Defrance, sp., from 
the Messinese Pliocene and Miocene deposits, and a comparison of 
its structure with the numerous specimens dredged up in the 
‘Porcupine’ Expedition, lead me to believe that it is identical with 
Lophohelia prolifera. 

The same identity must be asserted for Lophohelia affinis, Pour- 
tales, which was dredged up in 195 fathoms off Coftin’s Patches, 
Florida. 

Lophohelia prolifera exists in the Mediterranean Sea and the sea 
between Scotland and Norway. 

Lophohelia anthophyllites is an Kast-Indian form ; but its absorption ~ 


* Seouenza, J. c. 
oO ? 


On the ‘ Porcupine’ -Kapedition Madreporaria. 291 


into Lophohelia prolifera suggests explanations concerning the 
Cainozoie progenitor, and how it migrated eastwards. 

The relation ‘of the recent East-Indian Coral-faunas to those of 
the European and West-Indian Cainozoic deposits has been noticed 
and admitted for some years past. 

The Cainozoic Lophohelia of Sicily is the earliest form of the 
genus; and those which are found in such remote parts of the world 
as the East Indies, the Florida coast, the Norwegian coast, and the 
Mediterranean, and which have been determined to belong to differ- . 
ent species, are, from the study of the curious assemblage of variable 
forms now under consideration, evidently varieties of the old type, 
Lophohelia prolifera. I have therefore absorbed the old species L. 
anthophyllites, L. subcostata, L. affinis, L. Defrancei, and L. gracilis. 

Two genera of the Oculinide in the classification of MM. Milne- 
Edwards and Jules Haime have always been most difficult to distin- 
tinguish ; and now the results of the dredging off the north of Scot- 
land and off Florida and the Havana necessitate the absorption of 
one of them. 

Amphihelia and Diplohelia.—The first containing recent species 
only at the time of the enunciation of the classification just referred 
to, and the last having fossil species only, were very likely to be con- 
sidered separate genera. Dziplohelia had species in the Eocene and 
in the Cainozoic seas. Amphihelia was known to have species in the 
Mediterranean fauna, and in that of Australia also. Seguenza, how- 
ever, described some Amphihelie and Diplohelie from the Sicilian 
tertiary deposits which were identical so far as generic attributes 
are considered, the only distinction being a doubtful raggedness of 
the septal edges. The habit and the method of growth and gemma- 
tion of the forms were the same. M. de Pourtales dredged up a 
branching form from off the Havana in 350 fathoms, and from off 
Bahia Honde, near Florida, in 324 fathoms, and also in lat. 28° 
24' N., long. 79° 13’ W., in 1050 fathoms (came up with the lead). 
This he named Diplohelia profunda. On referring to Seguenza’s 
plates and descriptions* of the fossil corals from the Sicilian Tertiary 
deposits, there is no difficulty in deciding upon the very close affinity 
of the species described by Pourtales and Diplohelia Meneghiniana, 
Seg., and Diplohelia Doderleiniana, Seg., fossil forms from the mid- 
tertiary deposits. 

But on comparing these forms with one exquisitely figured by 
Seguenza, and which he calls Amphihelia miocenica, Seg., the generic 
affinities of all become startlingly evident (tab. xii. fig. 1b, le, 
3b & 38e, op. cit.). 

The very numerous specimens of small branching Oculintde which 
were dredged up in the ‘ Porcupine’ Expedition (No. 54, and to the 
north-west of that spot in the cold area), at a depth of from 363 to 
600 fathoms, present singular variations of structure in the buds and 
calices upon the same stems. A comparison between them and the 
well-known recent and fossil Amphiheliv, the fossil and recent 


* Seguenza, lc. 


292—Ci Royal Society :— 


Diplohelie, and the smaller specimens of Lophoheliw, leads to the 
belief that Amphihelia is identical generically with Diplohelia, and 
very closely allied to Lophohelia. Indeed the distinction between 
the Lophohelie and Amphihelic is of the slightest kind. 

The species of the genus Amphihelia dredged up in the ‘ Porcu- 
pine’ Expedition are five :— 


1, Amphihelia (Diplohelia) profunda, Pourtales, sp. 
2. oculata, Linneeus, sp. 

3. —— miocenica, Sequenza. 

4, atlantica, nobis. 

o. ornata, nobis. 


The species came from No. 54 dredging, and from the cold area to 
the north-west in from 500 to 600 fathoms. 

The specimens are exceedingly beautiful, strong, and perfect; and 
there was much difficulty experienced in remoying the polypes from 
the calices. 

1. Amphihelia profunda, Pourtales, sp., has been noticed. It is 

a West-Indian form closely allied to a Sicilian miocene species. 

2. Amphihelia oculata, Linneus, sp., is well known in the Medi- 
terranean, and has not hitherto been found in the Atlantic. 

3. Amphihelia miocenica, Seguenza, is a very common species in 
the deep sea, but is rare in the miocene deposits of Sicily. Its fully 
developed costal structures distinguish it from the other -vrms. 

4, Amphihelia atlantica, nobis, is a new species, large, bushy, and 
with almost plain coenenchyma, which is very abundant. 

5. Amphihelia ornata, nobis, is a new species closely allied to the 
miocene form, but its ornamentation is most peculiar, and not con- 
tinuously costulate. 

Allopora oculina, Ehrenberg.—Several specimens of this very rare 
coral were dredged up in No. “5A, and one in the ‘ Lightning’ =— 
dition, not far from the same spot. 

The type is in the Berlin Museum; the locality whence it came 
is unknown. 

The distinction between these massive and densely hard corals 
(whose calices are principally on one side of the coenenchyma of the 
stem) and the Stylasters is very evident. 

M. de Pourtales has described a pretty red-coloured <Allopora 
miniata dredged in 100 to 324 fathoms off the Florida reef; but it 
is very distinct from the species discovered in the late deep-sea 
dredging expeditions. 

Allopora has no fossil representatives. 

Balanophyllia (Thecopsammia) socialis, Pourtales.—Six specimens 
of a simple perforate coral were dredged up in lat. 59° 56’ N., long. 
6° 27' W., 363 fathoms, temperature 31°°8 (No. 54), and one in lat. 
61° 10' N., long. 2° 21’ W., 345 fathoms, temp. 299-9 (No. 65). 

The six specimens are of different sizes and ages; and although 
they present considerable variation in shape and septal development, 
they evidently belong to one type. The solitary coral from No. 65 
is larger than the others, but it belongs to the same species. 


On the ‘ Porcupine’-Expedition Madreporaria. 293 


Notwithstanding the temperature in which the corals were found, 
and the depth of the sea, they are strong and well-developed forms, — 
evidencing an active and abundant nutrition. 

There is no difficulty in classifying the specimens with the 7'heco- 
psammic of Pourtales. 

Thecopsammia socialis, Pourtales, was dredged up in from 100 to 
300 fathoms, off Sombrero, near Florida, in the course of the Gulf- 
stream. 

I have been able to compare the specimens dredged up in the 
‘ Poreupine’ Expedition with M. Pourtales’s types, and, after making 
due allowance for variation, I have no doubt about including the 
British forms under his specific term. These varieties of the Flo- 
ridan type, found at greater depths, and doubtless in much colder 
water, present evidences of greater vigour than the American forms. 
They are larger and denser, and their septa are better developed. 
Moreover some of them, although they possess all the other charac- 
teristics of the genus as diagnosed by Pourtales, present indubitable 
costee, especially inferiorly. This clinging to the Balanophyllian 
type is not witnessed in the Floridan forms; but it is too important 
to be passed over, especially as it renders the generic distinction 
between many well-known Balanophyllie and the new Thecopsammicee 
very unstable. The Thecopsammic, from the peculiarities of their 
wall, epitheca, and septa, well merit the distinction of a subgenus ; 
and therefore I propose to restore the species associated under the 
term to the genus Balanophyllia, in the subgenus Thecopsammia. 


Balanophyllia (Thecopsammia) socialis, Pourtales, var. costata, No. 
54, ‘ Porcupine’ Expedition. 
, var. britannica. No. 54, ‘Porcupine’ Expedi- 


) -——, var. Jeffreysia. No. 65. 


All these varieties refer to specimens which were fixed by their 
bases to stones. 

The varieties and the original types are very isolated forms in the 
great genus Balanophyllia. They have only a very remote affinity 
with the West-Indian recent Balanophyllie, with those of the Crag, 
the Faluns, and the Kastern Tertiaries. 

The British forms appear to have emigrated from the south-west ; 
and probably the original type wandered through the agency of the 
Gulf-stream, which carried the ova and deposited them in our north- 
ern sea, where they have propagated, varied, and thriven. 

Pliobothrus symmetricus, Pourtales.—A specimen of this doubtful 
coral (which had been described by M. de Pourtales from the results 
of dredging in from 100 to 200 fathoms) was sent to me by Dr. Car- 
penter. It came from the cold area, in from 500 to 600 fathoms. 

There is no doubt that this very polyzoic-looking mass belongs to 
the American type. The tabule are hardly worthy to be called such ; 
and I place the form amongst the Zoantharia provisionally. 

III. The species of Madreporaria belong to genera which do not 
contribute and have not contributed to form coral-reef faunas, None 


294 Royal Society :-— 


of them are reef-builders ; but all are essentially formed to liye where 
rapid growth and delicately cellular structures are not required. The 
forms are strong, solid, and large; and their rapid and repeated 
gemmation proves that their nutritive processes went on actively 
and continuously. 

All the species are very much disposed to produce variations ; and 
this is especially true as regards those which have outlived the long 
age of the Crag, the glacial period, and the subsequent time of 
elevations and subsidences. The least-variable species are those 
which are not known on other areas. 

Two of the three species which are common to the West-Indian 
deep-sea fauna and that of our north-western coasts are also very 
variable. 

The persistence of Madreporaria from the earlier Cainozoic period 
to the present time has been an established fact for several years. 
Some of the forms which are common to the deep sea of the British 
area and to the so-called miocene of Sicily are still existing in the 
Mediterranean. None, however, of the species of Corals found in 
the British Crag are represented in the deep-sea fauna. 

The existence of Mediterranean forms in the North-west British 
area is in keeping with the discoveries of Forbes. It has, however, 
a double significance, and bears upon the presence of West-Indian 
forms on the North-west British marine area. There was a com- 
munity of species between the Mediterranean and the West Indies 
in the Cainozoic period, especially of Echinodermata, Mollusca, 
Madreporaria, and Foraminifera. After the great alterations of the 
mutual relations of land and sea which took place before the cold 
affected the fauna of the Franco-Italian seas, this community of 
species diminished ; but it lasted through all the period of Northern 
glacialization, and is proved still to exist slightly by comparing the 
Algz, the Corals, the Echinodermata, and the Mollusca. 

The presence of two very characteristic Floridan species, and one 
less so, off the north of Scotland, is particularly interesting, because 
they all live in the cold area and flourish there, whilst they appear 
to be less vigorous in the warmer Gulf-stream near Florida. 

It is impossible to fail to recognize the operation of this stream 
in producing the emigration of these three species, which are es- 
sentially American. 

The solidity and the power of gemmation of the corals within the 
cold area appear to be greater than elsewhere. Depth has not 
much effect upon the nutrition of the Madreporaria; for those 
dredged up at 600 fathoms are quite as hard and solid as those 
found at 300 fathoms. 

All the calices were stuffed with small Foraminifera, and there 
was evidently a great abundance of food. 

There were numerous Polyzoa, Sponges, Foraminifera, Diatomacee, 
and delicate bivalves associated with or fixed upon the corals at all 
depths. Moreover, at from 300 to 400 fathoms, some Amphihelie 
had incrusted an Annelid. 

Serpule, moreover, abound upon the corals; and a pretty [sis was 


On the ‘ Porcupine’-Expedition Madreporaria. 295 


associated with them at a depth of 705 fathoms. ‘This is a fauna 
which, if covered up and presented to the paleontologist, would be, 
and would have been for some years past, considered a deep-sea 
one. 

It is a fauna which indicates the existence of the same processes 
of nutrition and of destructive assimilation and reproduction which 
are recognized in association with corresponding forms at less depths 
and in higher temperatures. 

The great lesson which it reads is, that vital processes can go on 
in certain animals at prodigious depths, and in much cold, quite as 
well as in less depths and in considerable heat. It suggests that a 
great number of the Invertebrata are not much affected by tempera- 
ture, and that the supply of food is the most important matter in 
their economy. 

The researches of Hooker, who obtained Polyzoa and Foraminifera 
in soundings at a depth of nearly 400 fathoms off the icy barrier of 
the South Pacific, of Wallich in the Atlantic, and of Alphonse Milne- 
Edwards in the Mediterranean haye had much influence upon 
geological thought in this age, which, so far as geologists are con- 
cerned, is remarkably averse to theory. For many years before any 
very deep soundings had been taken with the view of searching the 
sea-bottom for life, geologists had more or less definite opinions con- 
cerning the deposition of organisms in sediments at great depths. 
Certainly more than thirty years ago deep-sea deposits were sepa- 
rated by geologists from those which they considered to have been 
formed in shallower seas. The finely divided sediment of strata con- 
taining Crinoids, Brachiopods, Foraminifera, and simple Madrepo- 
raria was supposed to have been deposited in deeper water than 
formations containing large pebbles, stones, and the mollusca whose 
representatives now live in shallows. The relations of such strata 
to each other during subsidence, the first being found occasionally to 
overlap the last, proved that there was a deeper sea fauna in the offing 
of the old shores which were tenanted by littoral and shallow-water 
species. The deposition of strata containing Foraminifera, Madrepora- 
ria, and Echinodermata, whose limestone is remarkably free from any 
foreign substances, has been considered to have taken place in very 
deep water ; this theory has been founded upon the observations of 
the naturalist and mineralogist. Indeed no geologist has hesitated 
in assigning a great depth to the origin of some deposits in the 
Laurentian, Silurian, or in any other formation. The “ flysch,” a 
a great sediment of the Eocene formation, has been considered to 
have been formed at a great depth and under great pressure. Its 
singularly unfossiliferous character was supposed to be due to the 
absence of life at the depths of the ocean where the sediment collected. 
But this was a theory of the early days of geology, when the de- 
structive influence of chemical processes in strata upon the remains 
of organisms in them was hardly admitted. 

The great value of such researches as those so ably carried out by 
Thomson, Carpenter, and Jeffreys is the definite knowledge they 
impart to the geologist, who is theorizing in the right direction, but 


296 Royal Society :— 


whose notions of the depth at which the sediments containing Inver- 
tebrata can be deposited are indefinite. These researches contribute 
to more exact knowledge, and they will materially assist the de- 
velopment of those hypotheses which are current amongst advanced 
geologists into fixed theories. I do not think that any geological 
theory worthy of the term, and which has originated from geological 
induction, will be upset by these careful investigations into the 
bathymetrical distribution of life and temperature. The theories 
involving pressure and the intensity of the hardness of deep-sea 
deposits will suffer from the researches ; but many difficulties in the 
way of the paleontologist will be removed. The researches tend to 
explain the occurrence of a magnificent deep-sea coral-fauna in the 
Paleozoic times in high latitudes, and of Jurassic and Cainozoic 
faunas on the same area, and they favour the doctrines of uniformity. 
They explain the cosmopolitan nature of many organisms, past and 
present, which were credited with a deep-sea habitat, and they 
afford the foundations for a theory upon the world-wide distribution 
of many forms during every geological formation. 

It is not advisable, however, to make too much of the interesting 
identities and resemblances of some of the deep-sea and abyssal 
forms with those of such periods as the Cretaceous, for instance. In 
the early days of geological science there was a favourite theory that 
at the expiration of a period the whole of the life of the globe was 
destroyed, and that at the commencement of the succeeding age a 
new creation took place. There were as many destructions and 
creations as periods ; or, to use the words of an American geologist, 
there was a succession of platforms, This theory held back the 
science, just as the theory that the sun revolved round the earth re- 
tarded the progress of astronomy. Moreover it had that armour of 
sanctity to protect it which is so hard to pierce by the most reason- 
able opposition. Nevertheless every now and then a geologist re- 
cognized the same fossils in rocks which belonged to different periods. 
A magnificent essay by Edward Forbes on the Cretaceous Fossils of 
Southern India, a wonderful production and far before its age*, gave 
hope and confidence to the few paleontologists who began to assert 
that periods were perfectly artificial notions—that it did not follow, 
because one set of deposits was forming in one part of the world, 
others exactly corresponding to it elsewhere, so far as the organic 
remains are concerned, were contemporaneous—and that life had 
progressed on the globe continuously and without a break from the 
dawn of it to the present time. 

The persistence of some species through great vertical ranges of 
strata, and the relation between the world-wide distribution of forms 
and this persistence were noticed by D’Archiac, De Verneuil, Forbes, 
and others. The identity of some species in the remote natural- 
history provinces of the existing. state of things was established in 
spite of the dogmatic opposition of authorities; and then geologists 
‘accepted the theories that there were several natural-history pro- 
vinces during every artificial period, that some species lived longer 

* Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. i. p. 79. 


On the ‘ Porcupine’-Expedition Madreporaria. 297 


and wandered more than others, and that some ‘have lasted even 
from the Paleozoic age to the present. 

Persistence of type was the title of a lecture delivered by Professor 
Huxley * many years ago; and this persistence has been admitted 
by every paleontologist who has had the opportunity of examining 
large series of fossils from every formation from all parts of the 
world. 

Geological ages are characterized by a number of organisms which 
are not found in others, and by the grouping of numerous species 
which are allied to those of preceding and succeeding times, but which 
are not identical. Certain portions of the world’s surface were te- 
nanted by particular groups of forms during every geological age ; 
and there was a similarity of arrangement in this grouping under 
the same external physical conditions. To use Huxley’s term, 
the “homotaxis” of certain natural-history provinces during the 
successive geological ages has been very exact. The species differed : 
but there was a philosophy in the consecutive arrangements of high- 
land and low-land faunas and floras, and of those of shallow seas, 
deep seas, oceans, and reef-areas. The oceanict conditions, for in- 
stance, can be traced by organic remains from the Laurentian to the 
present time, and the deep-sea corals now under consideration are 
representative of those of older deep seas. 

It is not a matter for surprise, then, that, there being such a thing 
as persistence of type and of species, some very old forms should have 
lived on through the ages whilst their surroundings were changed 
over and over again. But this persistence does not indicate that 
there have not been sufficient physical and biological changes during 
its lasting to alter the face of all things enough to give geologists 
the right of asserting the succession of several periods. The occur- 
rence of early Cainozoic Madreporaria in the deep sea to the north- 
west of Great Britain only proves that certain forms of life have 
persisted during the vast changes in the physical geography of the 
world which were initiated by the upheaval of the Alps, the Hima- 
layas, and large masses of the Andes. To say that we are therefore 
still in the Cainozoic or Cretaceous age would hardly be consistent 
with the necessary terminology of geological science. 

During the end of the Miocene age and the whole of the Pliocene 
the Sicilian area was occupied by a deep sea. The distinction be- 
tween the faunas of those times and the present becomes less, year 
after year, as science progresses; and it is evident that a great 
number of existing species of nearly every class flourished before the 
occurrence of the great changes in physical geology which have be- 
come the artificial breaks of tertiary geologists. That the Cainozoic 
deep-sea corals should resemble, and in some instances should be 
identical in species with, the forms now inhabiting vast depths, is 
therefore quite in accordance with the philosophy of modern geology. 
Before the deposition of the Cainozoic strata, and whilst the deep- 
sea deposits of the Eocene age were collecting in the Franco-British 

* Royal Institution. See also Pres. Address, Geol. Soc., 1870, 

+ P. M. Duncan, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. No. 101. 

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 4. Vol. v. 20 


298 Miscellaneous. 


area, there was a Madreporarian fauna there which was singularly 
like unto that which followed it, both as regards the shape of the 
forms and their genera. Still earlier, during the slow subsidence of 
the great Upper Cretaceous deep-sea area, there was a coral-fauna 
in the north and west of Europe, of which the existing is very re- 
presentative. The simple forms predominate in both faunas. Caryo- 
phyla is a dominant genus in either; and a branching Synhelia of 
the old fauna is replaced in the present state of things by a branching 
Lophohelia. The similarity of deep-sea coral-faunas might be carried 
still further back in the world’s history ; but it must be enough for 
my purpose to assert the representative character and the homotaxis 
of the Upper Cretaceous, the Tertiary, and the existing deep-sea 
coral-faunas. This character is enhanced by the persistence of types ; 
but still the representative faunas are separable by vast intervals of 
time. 


MISCELLANEOUS. 
On Parthenogenesis in Polistes gallica. By Prof. C. T. von Sresoxp. 


As long ago as 1858, Leuckart ascertained that the workers in 
societies of humble bees and wasps lay eggs, and that these eggs are 
capable of development. Von Siebold has resumed these experiments 
upon Polistes gallica. This wasp is peculiarly suitable for such in- 
vestigations, because its nest consists of a single comb entirely 
exposed. The comparative imperfectness of this nest allows the 
observer to follow all the actions of its inhabitants and all the 
phenomena which take place in its cells. Von Siebold succeeded 
in fixing great numbers of colonies of Polistes in places selected by 
him. He even succeeded in making these nests moveable for the 
purpose of experiment, without causing their inhabitants to abandon 
them. In this way he was able to observe hundreds of colonies of 
Polistes from their origin to their extinction. 

One nest of Polistes suffices for an entire summer for a colony, 
which it serves as a habitation and nursery. In the autumn all the 
colonies perish, however numerous they may be. Every spring 
isolated females give origin, each for itself, to new colonies. These 
females were produced during the previous summer, which they 
passed in a virgin state, and were fecundated by copulation in the 
autumn before falling into their winter sleep. The spermatozoids 
stored in the seminal receptacle are preserved in good condition 
throughout the winter, and in spring fertilize the eggs as the de- 
position of the latter goes on. Each of these females constructs for 
itself a nest composed of a small number of cells, and busies itself at 
first with oviposition, and then with the bringing up of the new 
generation. The new individuals thus engendered are, up to the 
middle of summer, exclusively females. The first of these individuals, 
reared by isolated mothers, are females of very small size. Their 
smallness is no doubt due to the circumstance that the mother, being 


Miscellaneous. 299 


overwhelmed with work, can only furnish her young with a scanty 
supply of nourishment. These small individuals have hitherto been 
regarded as workers or neuters ; but this denomination is erroneous. 
Von Siebold*has dissected many of these small individuals of Polistes, 
and ascertained, by the examination of their generative apparatus, 
that they are not, like the worker bees, females arrested in their 
development, but perfectly developed females the turgid ovaries of 
which are filled with eggs ready to be laid. 

As soon as the original mothers have thus produced assistants in 
the form of these active virgins, the increase of the nest takes place 
rapidly, and the larve, receiving more abundant nourishment, are 
transformed into wasps as large as their mother. Towards the end 
of June or the beginning of July the comb presents a large surface 
and is composed of a very great number of cells. At this period 
some male individuals may be remarked for the first time among the 
numerous large and small females. Their number soon increases 
considerably. The observation of these facts suggested to Von Siebold 
that there might exist, in Polistes, a division of physiological labour— 
in this sense, that the fecundated females of the preceding year pro- 
duce only female eggs, whilst the virgins of the new generation 
produce male eggs parthenogenetically. This hypothesis seemed to 
find support in the small number of ovarian tubes in Polistes, which 
can only produce an inconsiderable number of eggs. 

Experiment has confirmed this hypothesis in the most striking 
manner. Von Siebold selected a certain number of nests in the spring, 
at a period when the mothers had already reared one or two assistants. 
He removed from these nests the mothers, and dissected them in 
order to ascertain the condition of their generative organs. He 
always found the ovarian tubes in full activity, and the seminal re- 
ceptacle full of mobile spermatozoids. At the same time he entirely 
emptied all the cells of these nests which contained eggs or any 
small larvee, preserving only the larve of large size. Notwithstand- 
ing the disappearance of the mothers, the little virgins continued to 
take care of the larve which had been preserved, and consequently 
the colonies did not perish. Von Siebold took the precaution to 
mark, in each of the nests experimented upon, the occupied and 
empty cells. In a few days he perceived that some of the latter 
contained eggs. Careful examination even enabled him to surprise 
some of the little virgin wasps at the moment when they were 
ovipositing at the bottom of a cell. These individuals were at once 
sacrificed, when the six ovarian tubes were found to be completely 
developed, filled with ova in different stages of growth, whilst the 
seminal receptacle was perfectly formed but completely empty. 

During this time, thanks to the assiduous care of the young virgins, 
new female individuals, produced from the large larve which had 
not been sacrificed, arrived at their complete development, and at once 
took part in the labours of the society. The nests were consequently 
enlarged by new cells, which were speedily occupied by eggs laid by 
the virgins. All these eggs (and this is the important fact) were 
developed notwithstanding the absence of fecundation, and gave 

20* 


300 Miscellaneous. 


birth to young larvee which prospered under the care of the virgin 
society. All these larve, at their final transformation, furnished 
males, in opposition to the larvee which had been previously pro- 
duced by the original mother, and which had furnished only females. 

It may, perhaps, be asked whether a strange fecundated mother 
may not have penetrated accidentally into the nests deprived of their 
mother, and oviposited here and there in the cells. To this question 
Von Siebold gives a decided negative. During the four years which 
he has devoted to the study of these wasps, he has constantly 
ascertained that the inhabitants of one nest never tolerate the 
intrusion of a Polistes from another colony into their society. The 
instinct of these Hymenoptera informs them that these intruders are 
only robbers penetrating into their nest to steal the larvee and 
devour them. It is therefore evident that in Polistes gallica the 
male individuals originate parthenogenetically from unfecundated 
eges.—Zeitschr. fiir wiss. Zoologie, Bd. xx. p. 2386; Bibl. Univ. 
March 15, 1870, Bull. Sci. p. 271. 


On Force and Will. By B. A. Gouxp. 


Scientists are now of accord that “ force can neither be created 
nor destroyed,” and that “ the quantity of force in nature is just 
as eternal and unalterable as the quantity of matter.” Its various 
forms are eminently convertible, yet utterly indestructible. And to 
avoid that fruitful source of disagreement among the ablest men, 
which has arisen from the ambiguous signification of the word, we 
must adopt the meaning which is finding general acceptance, and 
define force as “that which is expended in producing or resisting 
motion ”’—thus clearly discriminating between force and its cause. 

In his retiring address before the American Association last year, 
our honoured ex-president Dr. Barnard presented an argument, so 
vigorous and clear that I see no room for an adequate rejoinder, in 
opposition to the doctrine which would extend the principle of 
the conservation of force to the phenomena of consciousness—“ a 
philosophy which at the present day is boldly taught in public 
schools of science, and which numbers among its disciples many 
very able men.” He says, for instance :— 

“ Organic changes are physical effects, and may be received with- 
out hesitation as the representative equivalents of physical forces 
expended. But sensation, will, emotion, passion, thought are in 
no conceivable sense physical ” (Proc. Amer. Assoc. Chicago, p. 89). 

‘The philosophy which makes thought a form of force, makes 
thought a mode of motion, converts the thinking being into a 
mechanical automaton, whose sensations, emotions, intellections 
are mere vibrations produced in its material substance by the play 
of physical forces, and whose conscious existence must for ever cease 
when the exhausted organism shall at length fail to respond to 
these external impulses” (ibid. p. 91). 

‘¢ Thought cannot be physical force, because it admits of no mea- 
sure. * * A thing unsusceptible of measure cannot be a quan- 


Miscellaneous. 301 


tity ; and a thing that is not even a quantity cannot be a force” 
(ibid. pp. 93, 94). 

Before the cogent reasoning carried out by President Barnard, of 
which the genéral tenor is indicated by these quotations, the view 
that force affords a middle term between the moral and the material 
worlds can be sustained as little as the pure materialism against 
which the argument was directed. But if we ascend a grade 
higher, and consider that which guides and compels force, as force 
guides matter, I am disposed to believe that the problem may be 
nearer to a solution. Yet I offer my views with hesitation, not 
unmindful of the great thinkers who have considered these exalted 
topics, and shrinking from the rebuke of presumption. 

There is an elegant experiment, in which the tension of a spring 
is made to produce heat by percussion, thus developing the current 
from a thermo-electric battery, which by successive modifications of 
its force exhibits heat, chemical action, magnetic attraction, and 
finally bends another spring—the same original force successively 
appearing in all these various manifestations until it is reestablished 
in its pfimitive form. In such an experiment the imperfections of 
the apparatus would of course entail some loss at each successive 
step, and thus preclude the practical recovery of an available force 
equal to that expended in the original flexure of the spring. Yet 
the fact is beyond question that such loss is due solely to the inade- 
quacy of our implements for collecting and transmitting the force 
at each stage of the experiment; for the law of conservation teaches 
that it is in every instance converted into other form or forms 
without diminution. Could such an apparatus be constructed with 
theoretical perfection, it would represent an eternal circuit of force ; 
and, like the frictionless pendulum in a vacuum, it would exhibit a 
perpetual motion, after the needful impulse had once been applied. 
The spring would oscillate for ever, did no extraneous force oppose, 
whether the force producing its rebound were or were not trans- 
mitted through a chain of modifications. 

In this inert apparatus no force whatever would have been im- 
bodied ; yet qualities would have been implanted by design, which 
would compel an indestructible force applied to it to play the part 
of an unwilling Proteus. The inference seems unavoidable that 
force may be guided and controlled, compelled to exert itself in this 
or that shape, without the outlay of any other force for the purpose. 
If it be objected that it is an intrinsic law of force that it shall 
change its form in exerting itself, the case is in no wise altered by 
the expression of this truism. Our design has prescribed, and (ex- 
traneous force being absent) might indefinitely prescribe, the modes 
and directions in which that constant force should manifest itself. 

Muscular force is directed, and in its vital action is usually con- 
trolled, by will. If we assume it to be coequal with the expenditure 
of tissue *, measurable alike by its transferred results and by the 


* Even if it be also, to some extent, supplied by the disorganization of food 
not fully converted, the argument is not thereby affected. 


302 Miscellaneous. 


decomposition of this tissue, where and what is that power which 
lets loose or withholds this force, and whose action is attended by a 
conscious effort? It is the will—a something which directs and 
controls force without expending it. Not only are thought and 
forms of consciousness not forces, if the reasoning already adduced 
be correct, but, although often moral incentives to the will, they are 
not even motive energies in the sense in which I think we must 
concede the will to be such. It is true that the exercise of thought 
is followed by fatigue, yet it is not attended by a sense of effort, 
except in so far as it is directed by an exertion of the will. And 
although the former doubtless consumes tissue, have we any reason 
for believing that the exercise of will does the same, apart from that 
consumption which corresponds to the forces whose mode of action 
it prescribes ? 

Thus it would appear that the metamorphosis of force, though 
not “work done” in the mechanical sense, is the result of some 
definite mode of causation. What this causation is, and whether it 
is susceptible of measurement, are the next questions. In the same 
category with this agency, or energy, or influence, the vital prin- 
ciple would seem to belong—directing forces while it neither 
expends nor consumes them. In the growth of organic beings, 
unstable combinations are formed; and organized structures are 
thence reared, in which, as Kant has so beautifully said, “ all parts 
are mutually ends and means.” If in such organic development 
force is consumed, disorganization without decomposition ought to 
evolve it. Of the deposit of force in the unstable material of the 
tissues I am not speaking, but of the vitality itself, which repre- 
sents an energy requisite for the development and growth of or- 
ganisms, their dissolution being in turn attended by development 
of inferior forms of life, which suggest that this energy may have 
again been made available—an energy, too, which is not ‘ force ” as 
this term has just now been defined. 

No comparison can be drawn between vitality and those mole- 
cular forces which build the crystal. Crystalline forms arise when 
the molecular attractions enjoy the freest scope ; and their construc- 
tion must be attended by an evolution of force which ought to be 
recognizable by physical tests, and which should also be measurable 
by an excess of their resistance to solution, over that of compara- 
tively amorphous masses of the same material, in which equal 
weights present equal surfaces. 

So, too, not only in that individuality which life confers and in 
the impossibility of insulating or transferring vitality, but also in 
its hereditary character and its apparent susceptibility of indefinite 
increase or diminution, the vital energy violates our fundamental 
conceptions of force, and demands a separate category, seeming to 
belong in the same with will. If will and life be forms of force, 
their total amount must be limited by the law of conservation. If, 
on the other hand, they are outside the realm of forces, we may 
more readily indulge the conviction to which experience would lead, 
that their freedom is unfettered by any restrictions within our 


Miscellaneous. 303 


knowledge, each enjoying an indefinite, though possibly a corre- 
lated scope in its own domain. The indestructibility of both matter 
and force implies a fixed coefficient of force for matter in equi- 
librium ; but how great is the contrast offered in this respect by 
such energies as life and will! 

Now, if this reasoning be correct, we may have in this class of 
energies that middle term, so earnestly desired and so intensely 
needful, which unites the phenomena of matter with those of spirit, 
and forms the connecting link between science and religion, their 
harmonious conjunction affording the highest system of philosophy. 
It is this class of energies which, controlling the forces of matter, 
guides and governs their modifications and transformations. It is 
this, moreover, which, inseparable from mind, is exerted by all con- 
scious organism. The mystic play of coequal, but, to our senses, so 
dissimilar forces, and the equally recondite mutual action of the eye, 
the brain, and the nerve, alike demand agencies transcending all 
our science, yet implicitly obeying physical laws. The highest 
manifestation of these agencies is in will; the highest agent is the 
Almighty. Thus the dictum of faith, that the universe exists only 
by virtue of the continued will of its Creator, represents a palpable 
scientific fact; and we may see that the pantheist, the materialist, 
and the spiritualist (I will not be debarred from this noble word by 
the associations of its misuse to-day) have been contemplating the 
same exalted truth from different aspects, with limited ranges of 
vision.—Silliman’s American Journal, March 1870. 


On the Constitution and Mode of Formation of the Ovum of the 
Sacculine. By M. Baxsrant. 


In a note inserted in the ‘Comptes Rendus’ of the 29th No- 
vember last, M. E. van Beneden undertook to show that the inter- 
pretation given by M. Gerbe to the facts observed by him in his 
investigation of the mode of formation of the ovum of the Saceulinw 
is incorrect. At the same time he presents avery different expla- 
nation of these facts, and he concludes by rejecting as unfounded 
the inductions which M. Gerbe had drawn from his observations 
with regard to the constitution of the ovum in a great number of 
animals. In his memoir M. E. van Beneden also criticizes the 
opinions that I have put forward as to the nature and physiological 
function of the peculiar body first seen in the ova of certain spi- 
ders by some German observers, and which I subsequently made 
the subject of a special memoir, presented to the Academy in 1864. 
I shall endeavour to reply hereafter to those of M. E. van Bene- 
den’s assertions which concern me; but in the meantime it is not 
without interest to inquire which, M. Gerbe or M. van Beneden, is 
in the right in the explanation proposed by him of the facts ob- 
served by him in the Saceuline. 

Let us first recall in a few words the manner in which these facts 
were detailed by M. Gerbe. According to this observer the ovum of 


304 Miscellaneous. 


the Sacculine is constructed upon a type analogous to that of Birds ; 
that is to say, it is composed of a nutritive part, or yelk, and a 
plastic part, or cicatricula. According to him, this structure is mani- 
fest especially in the young ovules, which even appear as if composed 
of two distinct halves or lobes separated by a median constriction, of 
which one represents the primitive yelk, the other the germinative 
portion. Afterwards the latter is no longer visible, except in the form 
of a small rounded prominence on the surface of the mature ovum. 
The yelk and the cicatricula each bear at the centre of formation a se- 
parate vesicle, such as I had myself previously assumed for the ova of 
a considerable number of animals ; but, reversing the parts ascribed 
by me to each of these two constituent elements of the ovule, M. 
Gerbe regards the vesicle placed at the centre of the cicatricula as 
corresponding to the germinal vesicle of other species of animals, 
and that situated in the midst of the yelk as the homologue of the 
second vesicle which I have indicated in the vitelline nucleus of 
the Arachnida, Myriopoda, &c. 

When M. Gerbe published these results I thought it necessary to 
raise some objections to his views; but not having then any personal 
knowledge of the facts upon which he based them, I confined myself 
to showing that his observations had not the precision necessary to 
justify the general conclusions which M. Gerbe drew from them 
with regard to the function of the two primitive vesicles of the 
ovum. I have since acquired more decisive proofs, having had the 
opportunity, during a recent residence on the coast, of undertaking 
some researches on my own account into the mode of formation of 
the ovum in the Sacculine. I have observed all the interesting facts 
to which M. Gerbe first called the attention of naturalists ; but, like 
M. van Beneden, I am obliged to interpret them quite differently 
from the able naturalist of the College of France. On the contrary, 
my observations agree in almost all points with those of M. van Be- 
neden, although made quite independently. This will appear clearly 
from the following résumé of my investigation of Peltogaster Paguri 
(Rathke). 

Let us first examine the facts observed in the little Naupliiform 
larvee which represent the first age of the animal at its escape from 
the egg. When observed in an uninjured state, we only see in 
their interior a mixture of refractive globules, the remains of the 
nutritive vitellus, and of larger bodies, refracting light much more 
feebly, and having all the characters of true cells. But on bursting 
the outer integument of the larva by careful pressure, the contents 
escape, and we see that these celis are rudimentary ova attached by 
a prolongation, in the form of a peduncle, to a slender central cord, 
a sort of rachis, on the surface of which the ovules originate by 
budding. This structure of the ovary of the larva of Péeltogaster 
greatly reminds one of that of the same organ in the Arachnida. 
The ovules are pyriform; the largest have an average diameter of 
0-025 millim.; whilst the smallest appear as almost imperceptible 
grains attached to the surface of the rachis. Nothing in the con- 
stitution of these bodies recalls the organization which M. Gerbe 


Miscellaneous. 3805 


ascribes to them in the adult Sacculina. The ovules, in the larva, 
at least during the first period which follows the exclusion of the 
latter, evidently only represent simple cells with their ordinary con- 
stituent parts—namely, a protoplasm which is sometimes homo- 
geneous, sometimes more or less granular, according to the state of 
development, and a nucleus or germinal vesicle, 0-014 millim. in 
breadth in the most advanced ovules, and furnished with a single 
nucleolus or germinal spot, which is comparatively large and well 
marked. Moreover by means of reagents we may display an 
enveloping membrane surrounding the ovules; but this appears to 
me to be rather a capsular envelope than a real vitelline membrane. 
What are the modifications undergone by the reproductive appa- 
ratus during the successive phases through which the larva passes 
before commencing its sedentary and parasitic existence? My in- 
vestigations have taught me nothing about this; for I have not been 
able to meet with the larva again until, fixed upon the abdomen of 
the Pagurus, it had become transformed into the adult animal, a 
sort of pouch filled with eggs, in which the latter pass through all 
the stages of their ovarian and embryonal evolution. At this period 
of their life the ovarian rachis of the larva has become transformed 
into a ramose organ, the numerous divisions of which serve to sup- 
port a multitude of ovigerous follicles, which are appended to it as 
the grapes of a bunch are to its ramifications. When the ovary is 
torn under water, the elements enclosed in the ovigerous follicles are 
set free. These are, in the first place, some spherical bodies ren- 
dered opaque by the numerous refractive globules contained in their 
interior ; these are easily recognized as ova more or less approaching 
their period of maturation. Their diameter varies between 0-13 
and 0-15 millim. We shall revert hereafter to the constitution of 
these bodies. Side by side with them we see a great number of 
other smaller elements, as to the signification of which we may at 
first hesitate. Some of them are regularly round cells, 0:02-0:03 
millim. in breadth, formed of a transparent, finely granular proto- 
plasm, with a nucleus 0-015 millim. in diameter, furnished with 
a simple, large and rounded, very refractive nucleolus. The others 
have a bilobed form, and appear, at the first glance, to be constituted 
by the adhesion of two of the preceding cells; but a more careful 
examination soon shows that they are merely a state of division of 
the latter. 

Thus we see all the forms intermediate between the simple cells 
and the bilobed bodies, namely :—cells still regularly spherical, but 
already enclosing two juxtaposed nuclei; others which begin to 
exhibit a median constriction of their body, with a tendency on the 
part of the two nuclei to separate from each other ; others, finally, 
in which the two new cells are already well defined, but remain 
adherent by a larger or smaller part of their surface. 

In these last elements we readily recognize the bilobed ovules of 
M. Gerbe, or the mother cells in their different states of division 
described by M. van Beneden. I have but little to add to the de- 
scription given of them by this latter observer. The two daughter 

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 4. Vol. v. 21 


306 Miscellaneous. 


cells are not at first separated by any intermediate membrane, and 
their protoplasm is directly continuous ; so that, looking at things 
only by their first appearance, M. Gerbe might really be justified in 
thinking that he had under his eyes a small ovum with two lobes, 
each containing a vesicular nucleus in a common vitelline mass. 
But the illusion is no longer possible when these bodies have passed 
toa more advanced stage. In fact a transverse membranous sep- 
tum is soon formed between the two adherent daughter cells, 
and separates their contents. This septum is visibly continuous 
with the line of the outer contour of the two cells, and conse- 
quently cannot be interpreted otherwise than as an internal prolon- 
gation of the enveloping membrane, which was originally com- 
mon to them. Thus I cannot share in the opinion of M. van Bene- 
den, who denies a cell-membrane to the young ovules. -It is by 
means of this median septum, which, instead of splitting, and thus 
permitting the separation of the two ovules, remains simple, that 
the latter are, so to speak, soldered together. This splitting only 
takes place much later, when one of the two united cells, having 
alone continued its development, becomes transformed into a ma- 
ture ovum, as described by M. van Beneden. We still see, for a 
longer or shorter time, at the surface of this ovum, the ovule which 
has remained stationary in its development in the form of a small 
rounded prominence ; but this is detached when the ovum quits its 
follicle to pass into the oviferous pouch. It was by following the 
gradual development of this ovum that M. van Beneden ascertained 
that the supposed cicatricula with which M. Gerbe had endowed it 
was nothing but the little sister cell adhering to it, and that the 
cellular nucleus which the same observer supposed to exist at the 
centre of this cicatricula was only the nucleus of this same cell. We 
arrive at a similar demonstration by the mechanical means which 
enable us to separate these two bodies. Thus by rolling the ovum 
carefully under a thin glass cover, we sometimes succeed in detach- 
ing from it the little ovule, which, as soon as it is free, resumes its 
original spheroidal form. The same result is also sometimes obtained 
by the action of chemical substances, which cause the contraction of 
the protoplasm, by the tendency of the little ovule to acquire a 
rounded form under the influence of those reagents.— Comptes 
Rendus, December 20, 1869, tome lxix. pp. 1820-1324. 


On some Mammalia from Eastern Thibet. 
By M. A. Mityz-Epwarps. 


Two monkeys inhabit the coldest and least accessible forests of 
eastern Thibet. One is a Macacus, allied to M. speciosus and M. 
tcheliensis, in which the tail is very short. Its coat is of a dark 
greyish brown; the hairs, which are very long and thick, present 
no differently coloured bands ; the lower parts of the body are of a 
much lighter grey, and the face and hands are flesh-coloured. The 
species is named M. thibetanus. 

The second species is a Semnopithecus, named S. rowellana by the 


Miscellaneous. 307 


author. It is distinguished by its very long and thick coat, the 
hairs of which are grey at their base and silvery yellow towards 
the point; the latter colour predominates on the limbs, the belly, 
and the sides of the face, and is mingled with a very brilliant red 
tinge on the frontak region. The upper margin of the nostrils is 
much developed, forming a true nose. 

Two species of Insectivora form the types of new genera. One 
of these seems to be a transition form between the Desmans and the 
Shrews; like the former it has the posterior feet dilated into nata- 
tory pallets, and its tail is long and laterally compressed; but its 
snout is short, and its teeth resemble those of Sorea. It has sixteen 
teeth in the upper and twelve in the lower jaw. To this animal the 
author gives the name of Nectogale elegans. The second form is 
nearly allied to the Shrews, but is distinguished by having scaly feet 
and a tail so short as to be concealed by the hairs; it has only 
twenty-four teeth, twelve above and twelve below. For this genus 
the author proposes the name of Anowrosorex. A mole, named Talpa 
longirostris, is characterized by its very elongated muzzle, which 
gives it a certain resemblance to the Japanese 7’. moogura. The 
latter has only six inferior incisors; the new Thibetan species has 
eight. 

The most interesting animal is one called by the Abbé David 
Ursus melanoleucus. The author states that it is not a bear, although 
resembling one in its external appearance, but in its osteological and 
dentary characters it approaches the Pandas (A7/urus) and Raccoons. 
It forms a new genus, for which the name of Atluropoda is proposed. 
The author also notices a fine Flying Squirrel, which has the head 
and breast covered with a mixture of bright-red and white hairs. 
He names it Pteromys alborufus.—Comptes Rendus, February 14, 
1870, tome lxx. pp. 341-342. 


On the Transformation of the Nests of the House-Martin (Hirundo 
urbica, Linn.). By M. A. Povcuer. 


M. Pouchet has noticed a change in the design of the nests of the 
common House-Martin, which he says has been effected within the 
last forty years, and the observation of which leads him to think 
that the notion of the exact persistence of the same mode of nest- 
building is by no means so certain as has generally been supposed. 
He refers to seyeral instances in which we may presume that a 
change took place on the birds of certain species quitting the open 
country and coming to take up their abode among human habitations. 

With regard to the House-Martin, M. Pouchet states that, having 
procured some nests in order to draw them, he was surprised to 
find that they differed considerably from those which he had collected 
forty years ago, and which are still preserved in the Museum at 
Rouen. A reference to published figures of the Martin’s nest fur- 
nished further evidence of the same kind. 

The nests of the older form are hollow quarters of hemispheres 
apphed by three sections to the embrasures of windows or to the 


308 Miscellaneous. 


surface of buildings, and having a very small circular opening, two 
or three centimetres in diameter, for the entrance and exit of the 
birds. The new nests, on the contrary, represent the quarter of a 
hollow hemiovoid, having its poles much elongated, and its three 
sections adhering to the walls of buildings, except above, where the 
entrance is formed; and this entrance, instead of being a mere 
rounded hole, zs a long transverse fissure bounded below by a de- 
pression of the margin of the nest, and aboye by a projection of the 
building to which the nest is attached. This aperture is nine or ten 
centimetres in length, whilst its gape is only two centimetres. 

M. Pouchet regards this alteration in the form of the nest as not 
only a change, but an improvement. The greater extent of the floor 
gives more room for the movements of the little family, the members 
of which will be less heaped upon one another. The long narrow 
aperture enables the young birds to put out their heads so as to 
breathe the fresh air and contemplate the world around them, whilst 
the access of the parent birds to the nest without displacing the 
young ones is rendered far more easy, and the interior of the nest is 
better protected from the weather. 

His attention having been called to this change in the structure of 
the Martins’ nests, M. Pouchet set to work to examine with a glass 
the nests in position in various parts of Rouen. He found that 
upon the old churches of the centre of the town many of the nests 
presented the old construction, being either old nests repaired and 
made fit for use, or the work of conservative architects who still 
stuck to the old plan: the former appeared to M. Pouchet to be the 
most probable supposition. Mixed with these were other nests of 
the new form. Along the new streets of Rouen, on the other hand, 
all the nests were built after the new fashion.—Comptes Rendus, 
March 7, 1870, tome Ixx. pp. 492-496. 


Character of a new Species of Crossoptilon. 
By the Abbé Armand Davin. 


M. Milne-Edwards has communicated to the Academy of Sciences 
the following diagnosis of a Crossoptilon, extracted from a letter of 
M. A. David, dated Sse-Tchuan, December 18, 1869. The species is 
named C. cerulescens :— 

«‘Same dimensions and form as C. auritum; feet red ; bill light 
red, marked with brown towards the tip; iris reddish nut-brown ; 
head like that of the species from Pekin, with the elongated feathers 
_of the ears a little more developed; general colour of the plumage a 
uniform and very fine dark-bluish slate-colour, except that the ends 
of the large feathers of the tail are black and shining, with green 
and violet reflections; the three or four small lateral feathers are 
white at their basal portion or entirely, according to age; the large 
quill-feathers of the wings also are olive-coloured; and the black 
velvety feathers of the top of the head are separated from the slate- 
coloured feathers of the neck by a small white streak.”—Comptes 
Rendus, March 7, 1870, tome xx. p. 538. 


THE ANNALS 


AND 


MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 


[FOURTH SERIES. | 


No. 29. MAY 1870. 


XXXIII.—On two new Species of the Foraminiferous Genus 
Squamulina; and on a new Species of Diftugia. By H. J. 
Carter, F.R.S. &e. 

[Plates IV. & V.] 


THE genus Squamulina, according to Dr. Carpenter, was in- 
stituted by Prof. Schultze (Ueber den Or ganismus der Polytha- 
lamien, &c., 1854) for “ a minute Monothalamion of which he 
found several specimens at Ancona, adhering to the surface of 
Alge and to the sides of a glass vessel in which sea-water 
had been long kept. The shell, whose largest diameter is 
about 1-300th of an inch, has the form of an irregular plano- 
convex lens, being usually flat, or nearly so, on its attached 
side (which accommodates itself to the surface whereon it 
grows) and convex on its free side, on some part of which, 
usually about halfway between the centre and the periphery, 
is a wide orifice from which the pseudopodia issue. The shell 
is calcareous and opaque, and is destitute of pores; its adhe- 
rent layer is very thin, and is with difficulty detached from 
the surface to which it is attached. The substance of the ani- 
mal is of a brownish-yellow colour, as in Gromia; its pseudo- 
podia, however, seem fewer and less disposed to subdivide 
and inosculate.”’ (Carpenter, ‘Introduction to the Study of 
the Foraminifera,’ Ray Soc. Pub., p. 67, pl. 1. fig. 22; also 
Pritchard, ‘ Infusoria,’ p. 558, ed. 1861.) 

Two arenaceous forms of this genus live in the laminarian 
zone at Budleigh-Salterton, as their presence on certain fuci 
cast upon the beach during’ storms indicates :—one like Squa- 
mulina levis, the type species of Schultze’s genus just de- 
scribed ; the ‘other, also discoidal, but bearing a little, erect, 
brush-like eminence on its convexity. 

For the former I would suggest the specific name varians, 
and for the latter scopula, from the resemblance of the emi- 
nence to a little brush or broom. 


Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 4. Vol. v. 29 


310 Mr. H. J. Carter on Squamulina scopula, 


Let us direct our attention to a description of the latter first, 
as being the most interesting form of the two species. 


Squamulina scopula, mihi. Pl. IV. figs. 1-11. 


Test white and hollow, consisting of a pedestal (fig. 3a) and 
columnar portion (568), the former plano-convex and the latter 
obversely conical, terminating in a brush-like bunch of spi- 
cules (ff). Pedestal subcircular, more or less raised, closed 
below by a discoidal portion, which, stretching across its base, 
forms the point of attachment between the animal and the 
fucus or object on which it may be located; open above, 
where it joins the pointed end of the columnar portion. Co- 
lumnar portion erect, conical, with the pointed end down- 
wards, consisting of a neck (d), body (c), and head (e) ; neck 
contracted, more or less ligamentous, connecting the lower 
extremity of the column with the summit of the pedestal ; 
body increasing in size upwards, and formed of two or more 
dilatations ; head inflated, and bristled all over with sponge- 
spicules. The whole composed of fragments of hyaline colour- 
less quartz, mixed with sponge-spicules and a small portion of 
calcareous matter, cemented together by a chitinous substance; 
tessellated and almost smooth below, becoming rougher up- 
wards, until the whole head is obscured by a heterogeneous 
mass of projecting spicules and other like bodies, obtained in- 
discriminately from all the sponges of the locality, both sili- 
ceous and calcareous, arranged in a spreading form obliquely 
forwards, not unlike the fibres of a little broom, whence its 
specific designation—but where the spicules are capitate and 
not pointed at each end, having the heads outwards ; grains of 
quartz, for the most part, so minute and numerous that, like 
pounded glass, they cause the test to present a white colour 
when dry, which, of course, becomes greyish in water. Chiti- 
nous substance or basal cement supporting the arenaceous 
particles of the test outside, and inside forming a smooth sur- 
face, which lines the chambered cavity of both pedestal and 
column ; thickest, and even fibrous, about the lower end of the 
column, where it connects the latter with the summit of the 
pedestal, and where (if not always, for a minute distance) it, in 
many instances, is uncovered by the arenaceous coat (fig. 4 a), 
obviously for giving that latitude of movement to the column 
upon the pedestal which enables the former, when fresh or 
wet, to be bent down almost at right angles to the pedestal 
without breaking (fig. 2 a), but, on the contrary, with the power 
of regaining its erect position by the resilient nature of the 
chitine, here presenting a fibrous structure, perhaps in the 


a new Species of Foraminifera. dll 


living state under the command of some contractile contri- 
vance obeying the instinct of the animal. Pedestal hollow, 
presenting septal prolongations of the arenaceous coat inwards 
from its circumference towards the centre, which they seldom 
if ever reach, but, extending upwards from the disk, along the 
dome of the convexity, lose themselves at last in the latter as 
they approach the round hole leading from its summit into the 
columnar portion (figs. 5-9). Columnar portion hollow, con- 
sisting of two or more chambers corresponding with the num- 
ber of its dilatations (¢77¢), bound together by isthmic contrac- 
tions, the last of which terminates in an aperture (£), about 
4-6000ths of an inch in diameter, at the free end of the column, 
in the centre of the brush of sponge-spicules. Animal occu- 
pying the cavity of the test, consisting of semitransparent 
yellowish sarcode (fig. 11 a) charged with granules and oil- 
globules (04), frustules of Diatomacez, especially Melosira (d), 
dark-brown bits of fucus, and reproductive cells (c); more 
attenuated and less coloured anteriorly, whence the pseudo- 
podia are projected; bearing the frustules of Diatomacez 
and bits of fucus in the centre; and posteriorly charged 
with a great number of the reproductive cells, consisting of 
spherical, transparent, nucleated capsules, otherwise filled with 
a homogeneous, glairy, albuminous (?) substance. Largest 
test about 1-12th of an inch long; reproductive cells about 
$-6000ths of an inch in diameter. 

Hab. Sea: Laminarian zone; fixed on the purse-like root 
of Laminaria bulbosa, chiefly on and among the rootlets, also 
on the fronds of Phyllophora rubens. Often in company, on 
the former, with Squamulina varians, Leucosolenia botryoides, 
and Grantia ciliata. 

Loc. Beach at Budleigh-Salterton, Devonshire ; cast ashore 
by storms. 

Obs. We are indebted to Dr. Bowerbank for the first de- 
scription and illustration of this little organism (Phil. Trans. 
1862, p. 1105, pl. 73. fig. 3; repeated in ‘ Brit. Sponges,’ Ray 
Soc. Pub. 1864, vol. ii. p. 78, pl. 30. fig. 359), who gave it the 
name of “Halyphysema Tumanowiczit,” adding that ‘it is re- 
markable for being the smallest British Sponge” (!). But, 
as mental operations are seldom so correct as visual ones, so 
our author, who figures the polypes on the cord of Hyalonema 
as “ oscula”’ (Brit. Spong. vol. i. p. 287, pl. 35. fig. 374), has, 
in 1864, also very imperfectly figured this little Foraminiferous 
animal “as the smallest of British Sponges,” for which 
Schultze had already instituted the genus “ Squamulina,” ten 
years previously, viz. in 1854 (op. cit.). I do not, therefore, 
hesitate to use Schultze’s generic name with a new specific 

22* 


312 Mr. H. J. Carter on Squamulina scopula, 


one of my own, in order that henceforth all connecting Squa- 
mulina scopula with the sponges may be abandoned. How 
Dr. Bowerbank could have placed it among the sponges, 
when he states that he was unable “ to detect either oscula or 
pores,” and observed that the “ globular heads”’ of the spicules 
were outwards (op. cit.), | am at a loss to conceive. At the 
same time this mistake points out to us how very careful we 
should be when we come to the nice distinctions that exist 
between the Foraminifera and the Sponges, especially in the 
minuter forms, where deciding upon mere resemblances is as 
dangerous as denying the presence of pores or oscula in either 
class where we cannot immediately see them with our micro- 
scopes. 

I first found Squamulina scopula, on Phyllophora rubens, in 
November last (1869), and, after drying the specimens for 
examination with the microscope, was struck with the septated 
appearance of the bottom or discoidal part of the pedestal, 
which generally adheres to the fucus when the test is broken 
off in the dried state—an appearance so like the septal divi- 
sions of a coral-polype that I began to think that the organism 
must in some way be allied to these animals. 

Resolved, therefore, to take the earliest opportunity of fur- 
ther prosecuting this inquiry, I in vain sought for more spe- 
cimens of this little organism on pieces of Phyllophora; and, 
seeing the ordeal to which they must be exposed in passing 
through the “hurly-burly”’ of pebbles, waves, and sand, before 
they could reach the shore in safety, I had nearly given up 
all idea of success, when, one day in January last, I discovered 
it on fresh specimens of the purse-like root of Laminaria bul- 
bosa, especially on and about the rootlets projecting from the 
part next the rock on which it grows—the only position, per- 
haps, except by mere chance, in which it could be landed 
intact—and after this, obtained an abundant supply from these 
roots, all in a living state, but, of course, much washed by 
having undergone the exposure to which I have alluded. 

By the different aids which those accustomed to the exami- 
nation of microscopic objects are in the habit of applying, I 
have been able to analyze this little organism, so as to obtain 
the facts given in the above description. 

Examined in the wet way while living, or preserved in 
spirit and water, by crushing and sectioning, examined in 
the dried state, and with parts mounted in balsam, all these 
facts may respectively be obtained ; but here, as in every thing 
else, patience, endurance, and perseverance are necessary to 
success, bearing always in mind that every specimen when 
examined, in part or entire, will probably afford something 


a new Species of Foraminifera. 313 


new, and that therefore he who examines most will, ceteris 
partbus, be able to describe the object most correctly. 

Although I have often sought for the pseudopodial pro- 
longations of the sarcode from the aperture of Squamulina 
scopula when in sea-water and in a living state and appa- 
rently under favourable circumstances as regards rest Kc., 
yet I have never been able to see them. But it should be 
remembered that they could only be viewed as opaque objects 
by reflected light, with, at the nearest, only }-inch compound 
power, while in general these prolongations can only be just 
seen by transmitted light with 4-inch, and then only under 
the most favourable circumstances as regards fresh sea-water, 
undiminished vitality, and with little or no molestation—a 
coincidence of conditions so difficult to obtain that I could 
hardly expect, with the power first mentioned, to be suc- 
cessful. 

What, however, I could not obtain in this way while the 
animal was entire, | have managed to get by dissection while 
fresh ; and thus all but seeing the animal substance move has 
been revealed by the processes just mentioned, under which 
the necessary magnifying-power with transmitted light could 
be used with impunity. 

By tearing the test to pieces, its composition can be easily 
ascertained ; and, first, we find that it is for the most part 
composed of colourless hyaline grains of quartz and sponge- 
spicules, sometimes one preponderating, sometimes the other, 
the former being so small that they look like pounded glass, 
and, being a// colourless, give the test its white appearance ; 
while the latter, which may be entire or fragmentary to an 
equal degree of minuteness, are derived indiscriminately 
from all kinds of sponges of the locality, calcareous as well 
as siliceous. They are chiefly fragmentary about the lower 
extremity, where they are tessellately connected by chitinous 
substance exactly like the arenaceous particles on the tests of 
some Difflugia, and equally heterogeneous, although, like 
many Difflugie, there is evidently a preference here for par- 
ticular objects, and especially for transparent substances 
without colour, inasmuch as, although nearly every thing else 
of the kind in the locality (that is, having recourse to foreign 
objects for the construction of its habitation) partakes of the 
ferruginous red material (argil and quartz) that, from the con- 
tact of the waves with the cliffs of the New Red Sandstone 
series here, deeply and continually tinges the sea, the animal 
of Squamulina scopula rejects all but the absolutely colourless 
grains: hence it is always pure white. 

Further up the column the fragments of the spicules are 


314 Mr. H. J. Carter on Squamulina scopula, 


longer and more projecting, until we arrive at the head, which 
is one mass of entire sponge-spicules of all kinds, arranged 
very much like pins in a pincushion, viz. with the obtuse or 
capitate ends, as the case may be, always outwards, those only 
being pointed which are pointed at both ends, ex. gr. the spi- 
cules ot Halichondria panicea, Johnston, which, either from 
its being the most plentiful sponge in the locality, or from 
preference of the Sqguamulina, or both, so far exceed the rest 
m number, that the animal may be inferred to prefer points 
to obtuse ends, when it can get them, for its spiculiferous 
head. 

Not content with grains of quartz and sponge-spicules, we 
frequently observe other objects, such as chitinous tentacles or 
setze of sea-animals, and even filaments of Melosira, incorpo- 
rated with the rest of this heterogeneous assemblage. In short, 
the animal appears to clothe itself with every thing of this kind 
that comes in its way, only confining the entzre spicules chiefly 
to the head or free extremity, where one of their purposes 1s 
evidently to act as strainers, catching fragments of soft bodies, 
living or dead, which impinge upon them by sinking or cur- 
rent-influence, and thus probably entrapping food after the 
manner of a spider’s web, which the pseudopodia then can 
easily envelope and draw into the body of the Squamulina. 

Carbonate of lime also enters into the composition of the 
test; but this is so trifling in quantity that it is impossible to 
say if the effervescence does not arise from the presence of 
fragments of calcareous spicules. Even when dilute nitric 
acid is applied to the thin disk which is left on the dry fucus, 
after the superstructure may be broken off, the diminution in 
bulk of the white material appears to be so trifling, although 
there has been effervescence, that, when dried again, the deti- 
ciency cannot be appreciated. 

The chitinous substance in which the arenaceous material 
is fixed is thicker below than it is above, and about the junc- 
tion of the column with the summit of the pedestal (that is, 
about the neck) presents a fibrous structure which binds the 
former to the latter by a material at once so tough and resi- 
lient that the erect or columnar portion may, in the living or 
wet state, be bent down at right angles to the summit of the 
pedestal in all directions without breaking or losing its natural 
elasticity, which, on the other hand, when the pressure is 
withdrawn, brings the column back to its erect position. 
Moreover this part, in some specimens, is visibly uncovered for 
a short distance by the arenaceous coat (fig. 4a), and, I think, 
as the latitude of its movements in every instance indicates, is 
always so just at the line of junction with the pedestal. How 


a new Species of Foraminifera. 315 


far the animal may make use of this latitude of movement in 
bending the head this way or that by living contractile power, 
as the occasién may require, I do not pretend to say ; but the 
head is frequently bowed down on one side or the other, as if 
the movement had been effected by the animal (fig. 2 a). 

The base of the pedestal, which is the bond of attachment 
between the Squamulina and the fucus or body on which it 
may be located, and, although not so thick, is also chiefly 
composed of the same material as the walls of the other parts 
of the test, presents a radiated. structure which, in a morpho- 
logical point of view, becomes so interesting that I shall post- 
pone it for more particular description and consideration here- 
after (figs. 6 & 7). 

Meanwhile, the cavity of the test, like the test itself, con- 
sists of two portions, viz. that of the pedestal and that of the 
column. That of the pedestal more or less corresponds with 
its external shape, presenting a circular hole at the summit 
(fig. 5a), which makes it continuous with the cavity of the 
column, but is modified, in the rest of its extent, by a variable 
number of pseudo-septal divisions of different lengths, five or 
six of which, but generally five, are more prominent than the 
rest, radiating inwards from the circumference of the pedestal 
towards its centre, short of which they stop, to leave a central 
area, but are continued upwards, so as partially to divide 
the cavity of the pedestal into five or more circumferential 
compartments, the septal prolongations between losing them- 
selves upon the dome of the pedestal as they approach the 
circular aperture at its summit, and thus causing the central 
area to form a common cavity with the circumferential com- 
partments, while it is in direct continuation with that of the 
column. 

At the point where the cavity of the pedestal joins that of 
the column, the union of the two is chiefly effected by chiti- 
nous substance on/y, to admit of the motion of the column on 
the pedestal to which I have alluded—a fact which, although 
thus indicated, is only now and then satisfactorily seen, when 
for some little distance at this poimt the outer or arenaceous 
coat is absent (fig. 4 a). 

The cavity of the column itself (777) consists of a chain of 
two or more chambers linked together by isthmic constrictions 
corresponding to the dilatations and contractions respectively 
of the column, which in full growth do not exceed three or four 
of the former, as my illustration will show (fig. 3), terminating 
at last at the summit of the column in the centre of the head 
of spicules, by a constricted canal like those joiing the dila- 
tations, and ending ultimately on the surface in a small aper- 


316 Mr. H. J. Carter on Squamulina scopula, 


ture (k). This aperture, however, can very seldom be well 
seen, owing to the forest of spicules which surround and inter- 
cross obliquely over it in the dried state; but occasionally it is 
perfectly visible ; and when not so, it is frequently marked by a 
brownish bit of sareode which fills the opening, and, contrast- 
ing in colour forcibly with the white mass of spicules sur- 
rounding it, enables the position of the aperture to be easily 
ascertained. 

The animal substance (fig. 11, a), which is of a pale yellow 
colour when living, occupies the cavity of the test, and resembles 
that of the Foraminifera generally, in consisting of granuli- 
ferous sarcode more or less charged with oil-globules. It may 
be divided into three parts, viz. anterior, middle, and poste- 
rior—or into pseudopodial, ventral, and ovigerous. The former, 
which, like that of Difflugia, is more attenuated and less 
granuliferous than the rest, also furnishes the pseudopodial 
prolongations ; the next division is charged with the frustules 
of Diatomacez, especially the disks and filaments of Velosira, 
minute Algz like Rivularia (Euactis ?), and bits of dark brown 
matter trom the decaying portion of the root of Laminaria 
bulbosa, near which Squamulina scopula likes to congregate, 
the latter causing the ventral sarcode to assume so much the 
appearance of the sarcode of thalium that it may be worth 
while to allude also to this again more particularly hereafter. 
Last of all comes the posterior division, which is more or less 
charged with spherical, transparent, nucleated cells (fig.4c) ,such 
as are commonly found in both Foraminifera and the testaceous 
freshwater Rhizopoda, and which I have often and long since 
figured and described in these organisms respectively in the 
pages of this periodical. This portion is a little denser than 
the rest, occupies the posterior or lower part of the cavity of 
the column and pedestal, and, when dry and contracted, pre- 
sents a dark brown colour. 

When the column is detached from the pedestal in the living 
state, the ventral and ovigerous sarcode may be easily pressed 
out of the lower end of the former (fig. 11), and thus examined 
under a high power, when the facts which I have mentioned 
may be easily verified. 

In form, the test of Sguamulina scopula differs very much, 
first, by age and growth, and, secondly, by some parts being 
more developed in some specimens than in others. Thus, if 
young, it may be short, the dilatations only amounting to one 
or two; or if old, to four or five: hence one of the latter 
has been chosen for the illustration (fig. 3). The pedestal, also, 
may be more or less atrophied; and its circumference may, 
instead of a circular, have a more or less undulating margin. 


a new Species of Foraminifera. 317 


Absolutely circular it seldom is, from the presence of a slight 
indentation at one part, which seems to correspond to that 
seen on the* circumferential line of nautiloid Foraminifera, 
with which we shall presently endeavour to identify it. 

Then the columnar part may be erect, sloping, or bent down 
to one side (fig. 2 a), or more or less irregular in form ; but all 
these differences are so slight, that, whether young or old, 
straight or crooked, deformed or symmetrical, there is no diffi- 
culty in recognizing the animal as the same, when once the 
nature and general form of Sguwamulina scopula has been 
ascertained. In some cases, too, this may be modified by the 
injury to which this delicate little organism must be exposed 
when hurled upon the shore; for the head in some specimens 
is much larger than in others, owing frequently, although not 
always, to the extent to which the fragile spicules have been 
broken off by the waves. Indeed it has often seemed to me 
wonderful that any of these delicate little objects of the Lami- 
marian zone should ever reach the shore in safety. Certainly 
myriads of them must be ground to powder, and thus dis- 
appear amidst the sand and pebbles with which they are tossed 
about in the land-wash, long before any of them are thrown 
up beyond the reach of the sea. Yet, but for heavy gales of 
wind, combined with head-growth and frequent decay of the 
roots of the fuci, we should never know what much of this 
zone contains in the way of either animal or vegetative life, 
since the dredge cannot be used among the rocks, and the 
constant waving to and fro of the fronds of the fuci, even in 
an almost motionless sea, defies all attempts to recognize any 
thing minute much below the surface, and renders every effort 
to obtain it direct from this zone almost useless. 

Food.—1 have stated that the spicular head might strain 
the water passing through it, and thus collect much soft ma- 
terial of a nutritive nature, either living or dead, so that the 
animal would only have to extend its pseudopodia up the spi- 
cules to seize and draw it into its body. But, in addition to 
this, there is hardly an instance in which remnants of Diato- 
macee are not present in the interior, consisting (for the 
most part certainly, as before stated) of the disks and fila- 
ments of Melosira, together with portions of the decaying 
fucus, thus indicating a power of obtaining food beyond that 
which may be provided by the straining arrangement of the 
spicules. Indeed, prior to the formation of the head of spi- 
cules at all must be the formation of the pedestal and lower 
part of the column, which distinctly points out that the ani- 
mal, from the very commencement, has the means of catching 
those particles which, floating by it, are found best subservient 


318 Mr. H. J. Carter on Squamulina scopula, 


to the purpose of nutrition and for the formation of its test 
respectively. 

Returning, now, to the pseudo-septal division of the pedestal, 
let us consider for a moment this structure with reference to 
its comparative morphology. 

When the specimens of Squamulina scopula are dried, they 
are very prone to fall off from their attachment to the fucus ; 
and then they invariably leave the bottom or disk of the pe- 
destal adherent to the former—which at once enables us to see 
the disk on the fucus (figs. 6 & 7), and the vault of the convex 
pedestal still connected with the broken-off column (fig. 8 a). 

If we first look at the disk adhering to the fucus (figs. 6 & 7), 
we shall observe that it is more or less white, being composed 
of the same material as the test, and presenting a more or less 
uneven ring, from which several processes of unequal length 
radiate inwards. Five or six, but generally five, of these, as 
before stated, are much more developed than the rest ; con- 
stricted towards the circumference and inflated towards the 
centre of the disk, which they do not reach, but leave, as also 
before stated, a central area, which forms, with the interspaces 
between the radii, a single common chamber, continuous, 
through the aperture of the summit of the pedestal (fig. 5a), 
with the general cavity of the column. The interspaces of the 
disk are more chitinous perhaps than arenaceous; that is to 
say, the test is not near so thick here as in other parts. 

Turning to the corresponding portion of the pedestal still at- 
tached to the column (figs. 8 & 9), we observe that these radiated 
portions of the disk belong to as many pseudo-septal divisions 
which, extending upwards, at last lose themselves upon the 
dome of the pedestal, near the margin of its aperture, and that, 
in the dried state, a contracted mass of dark brown sarcode (a) 
at this point presents, in its still lobed form (fig. 9a), the indica- 
tion of its once (when living) having occupied the interspaces 
between the septal divisions of the pedestal. 

Now this radiated disk undoubtedly has very much the 
appearance of the radiated septa of a coral-polype; but it has 
a still nearer affinity to the septal divisions of a nautiloid 
foraminiferous test ; and when we compare the whole structure 
of the pedestal with the latter, we cannot help seeing that the 
septal divisions are homologous with the septa of a nautiloid 
foraminiferous test, and that the central area corresponds 
with the initial or primary cell of a nautiloid individual, 
which, on being prolonged upwards, in Sguamulina scopula, 
developes a column at the expense of the spire. 

Following up this view, I by chance found a pedestal alone, 
which I have mounted in balsam and drawn as one of the 


a new Species of Foraminifera. 319 


illustrations (fig. 10), showing so plainly and so unmistakably 
the remains of the nautiloid chambered spire with an opening 
in the position of the initial or primary cell, that no doubt can 
now be entertained of the foregoing conclusions. 

I am not quite certain whether this disk, which had fallen 
off a portion of fucus bearmmg a number of both species of 
Squamulina (viz. scopula and varians), preserved in spirit, 
belongs to the former or to the latter species; for the former 
always has a hole in the summit of its pedestal, and the latter 
may or may not have it there, as will be seen presently, 
when it is described; but whether it belongs to one or the 
other, the observations on the comparative morphology apply 
equally to both species; and thus the specimen is as conclu- 
sive of the homology of Squamulina scopula with the nautiloid 
forms of Foraminifera as it will be found conclusive of the 
same fact in the description of Squamulina varians, the latter 
being, as it were, merely the pedestal of the former increased 
in size and somewhat altered in shape by the absence of the 
columnar portion. 

Thus, however much in the first instance we find the radii 
in the disk of the pedestal of Squamulina scopula like the 
septal divisions of a coral-polype, we shall presently see, in 
S. varians, that where they are altogether absent they leave a 
simple globular chamber, and that where, on the contrary, 
they are more or less developed they only present a step fur- 
ther towards the pedestal of Squamulina scopula, which is but 
a transitional form to a nautiloid foraminifer, and not to a 
coral-polype; that is to say, that the simplest form of Sgua- 
mulina passes thus into a nautiloid form of Foraminifera, and 
not direct into that of a coral-polype. 

Lastly, I alluded to the presence of the dark-brown bits of 
decaying fucus in the ventral portion of the animal of Squa- 
mulina scopula as resembling similar contents in the body of 
an Aithalium. I do not mean to identify dthalium in its 
massive amceboid state (that is, before it comes to maturity, 
dries up, and developes its sporidia) with a foraminiferous 
animal; but I mean to say that bits of brown decaying wood 
and resinous matter may be seen in an dthalium, evidently 
incepted from the woody tissue in or among which it had been 
living, much the same as we see the bits of decaying fucus in 
the ventral portion of Squamulina scopula—and, further, that 
the reproductive cells of S. scopula and the Foraminifera that 
I have examined in a living state are very like the reproduc- 
tive cells of Jthalium, in form and in crowded number, just 
before the latter pass into the matured or dried state, and be- 
eome black or otherwise deeply coloured. 


320 Mr. H. J. Carter on Squamulina scopula, 


Further, also, it might here be added that, whenever speci- 
mens of Leucosolenia botryoides are wanted, the most likely 
place to find them will be about the decaying parts of the 
roots of Laminaria digitata and L. bulbosa—that Grantia 
clathrus, Schmidt, seeks the same habitat, and that in one 
specimen (which I possess) the latter has, for some inches in 
diameter, so densely netted itself over the vault and through- 
out the branches of the root-bunch of a large specimen of L. 
digitata, that, at first sight, | was doubtful whether I had not 
one of the Myxogastres before me; so intimately allied in 
aspect, form, and habitat (the former being, of course, marine, 
and the latter terrestrial) do these sponges appear to be to this 
family of Fungi. 

Finally, I might add that, in two living specimens of a 
sponge obtained from different localities, and bearing spicules 
like those of Halichondria panicea, John., but possessing a 
faint purple tint, I found the purple colour to be produced by 
its being densely charged with smooth spherical cells so like 
the sporidia of the Myxogastres, that, but for the presence of 
the spicules and the specimens being fresh and living, I should 
have concluded that these cells came from one of the Myxo- 
gastres, and did not originally belong to the sponge. 

At present it seems to me, from the above observations, 
that if we are to propose any class-arrangements between the 
Sponges and the Corals, the Foraminifera must take an inter- 
mediate position as the transitional form, unless they be all 
viewed as branches from a common paleogenetic stock. 

Besides Halyphysema Tumanowiczvi (now our Squamulina 
scopula), Dr. Bowerbank adds another species, to which he has 
applied the specific designation of “ ramulosa,” and which he 
states does ‘not exceed two lines in height and about the 
same in breadth, and in this space there are eight branches ” 
(Brit. Spong. vol. 1. p. 79). The specimen appears to be 
unique ; and, in the absence of illustration and description of 
the manner in which the branches come off, this species, 
although in other respects almost the same as Squamulina 
scopula, must remain in abeyance, until chance favours some 
one with another specimen, who will give an illustration and 
a more detailed account of it. 

Under the genus Polytrema, Dr. Carpenter (op. cit. p. 236) 
alludes to an arborescent specimen which was “ completely 
covered over with a membranaceous sponge, the spicules of 
which seemed to radiate from the extremities of the branches,” 
and then adds, “‘ Of the parasitic character of the sponge I 
entertain no doubt whatever.” 

Can there be any connexion between this and Dr. Bower- 
bank’s branched species of his Halyphysema ? 


a new Species of Foraminifera. 321 


Squamulina varians, mihi. Pl. V. figs. 1-5. 


Test white, more or less circular, plano-convex, raised or 
depressed, or conical vertically or horizontally—in short, pre- 
senting all kinds of forms from a symmetrical dome-shaped 
body with circular base to an amorphous mass fringed out, 
amoeba-like, at the circumference into every variety of inden- 
tation ; possessing a single circular aperture at the base or 
summit, or anywhere between the two, widening outwards ; 
sometimes crescentic and lateral, at others produced in a cir- 
cular form on a short neck ; composed of colourless grains of 
quartz and sponge-spicules, fixed or tessellated more or less 
smoothly in a chitinous substance, which, extending across 
the base, fixes the test to the surface of the fucus or object on 
which the animal may be located; evidencing, by efferves- 
cence with acid, a slight admixture of calcareous matter, and 
sometimes, when the fragments of the spicules are long and 
pointed, or capitate, allowing these to project more or less be- 
yond the surface, the capitate ones with their obtuse ends 
outwards. Base or discoidal portion outwardly extending be- 
yond the body of the test, and terminating in a thin edge, 
which may be circular, subcircular, or more or less indented ; 
and internally (that is, in the chamber of the test) presenting, 
at its point of union with the body, a circular, subcircular, or 
wavy outline, more or less dentated by pointed prolongations 
of the test inwards, which, after being continued up the side 
for a little way, cease to appear above the surface of the inte- 
rior long before arriving at the summit of the dome. Cham- 
ber lined by chitinous substance, which chiefly composes the 
base or disk and thus forms the bond of attachment between 
the test and the fucus or body on which it may be located. 
Animal substance occupying the chamber, and consisting of 
granuliferous sarcode, of a light yellow colour while living, 
charged with oil-globules, frustules and filaments of Diato- 
mace, chiefly of Melosira, and reproductive cells. Size very 
variable, seldom more (and frequently less) than 1-30th inch 
in diameter. 

Hab. Sea: Laminarian zone, on Phyllophora rubens and the 
purse-like inflation of the root of Laminaria bulbosa, in com- 
pany with Lagotia viridis, Wright, chiefly inside, and with 
Squamulina scopula, Leucosolenia botryoides, and Grantia 
ciliata, chiefly outside. 

Loc. Beach at Budleigh-Salterton. 


Obs. This species appears to be so like Schultze’s Sguamu- 
lina levis, that, but for the test being composed of grains of 
quartz and fragments of sponge-spicules, instead of calcareous 


322 Mr. H. J. Carter on Squamulina varians, 


matter, I should have said it was one and the same. The 
arenaceous character of the test, however, makes the difference, 
if not also its pseudo-septal prolongations into the interior of 
the chamber. Schultze’s caleareous form, which also appears 
to be much more minute, I have not seen. 

S. varians closely resembles in every way the plano-convex 
portion or pedestal of the foregoing species; we have only to 
take away the columnar portion of S. scopula to have the more 
simple form of it which appears in S. vartans when the aper- 
ture is in the summit, and the base internally denticulated. 

Like the plano-convex portion of S. scopula, also, it varies 
much in its circumferential outline, as it does in the amount 
and extent of its pseudo-septal radiate prolongations internally, 
being sometimes without any of the latter, and thus presenting 
a simple single chamber (fig. 1) ; while at others it 1s more or 
less crenulated throughout by the inward denticulations of the 
test, approaching the many-chambered form of the nautiloid 
Foraminifera (fig. 4). 

It also varies very much in shape and size (compare fig. 1 
with fig. 5), but is always characterized by snow-whiteness, 
from the minutely comminuted state of the colourless grains 
of quartz of which the test is composed—thus resembling in 
this respect, like S. scopula, the whiteness of powdered glass. 

Sometimes pointed and capitate portions respectively of pin- 
like spicules are observed to be present, and to project some 
distance beyond the surface of the test (fig. 1), still further 
allying it in this respect to S. scopula. 

There do not appear to be any pores about the surface, and 
only one large aperture, which varies in position, as above 
stated, being most conspicuous when on the summit or side of 
the test. 

Occasionally light yellow spots are seen on the test; but this 
is where the chitinous substance is devoid of the arenaceous 
material. 

The internal contents are also above noticed. It seems to 
feed mostly on Melosira, as there is hardly a specimen which 
does not contain the disks, both singly and in filament, of this 
Diatomacean. 

Besides, occasionally I found a number of granulated plastic 
cells, which appeared to me to be a stage in advance towards 
‘development of the spherical nucleated reproductive ones (other- 
wise absent), which might thus be born in the state of Amabe. 
Analogy favours this view. 

As with S. scopula, one cannot help seeing, in the smooth 
tessellated test, composed especially of quartz-grains &c., a 
resemblance to the tests of D¢ffugia—and in the selection of 


and on a new Species of Diftlugia. 323 


those grains only which are colourless, that. character where 
the Difiugia chooses one particular object only for the con- 
struction of its covering. 

The test of this species is even more simple than that of S. 
scopula; for among its varieties is the symmetrical hollow 
dome with a single aperture, passing gradually into that form 
with more or less crenulated interior which simulates the 
nautiloid one of Foraminifera (to say nothing of the variety 
of external forms)—at the same time that this early significa- 
tion might associate it, in a morphological point of view, with 
the radiated septal divisions of the coral-polypes. 

I have not been able to see its pseudopodia, for the same 
reason as stated above for not having been able to see them in 
S. scopula. Nor have I ever been able to prove that it is or 
is not locomotive. It certainly adheres firmly to the fucus or 
object on which it may be located, but, when fresh, comes off 
entire by slipping a sharp knife under it, although, in the dried 
state, as with S. scopula, the body, when broken off, generally 
(if not always) leaves its disk on the fucus. Schultze’s calca- 
reous ones were locomotive, and thus, by being much smaller 
and creeping up upon the sides of the glass vessel in which 
they were kept, no doubt enabled him to see, by transmitted 
light, their pseudopodia. I could have done the same proba- 
bly with S. scopula and S. varians, respectively, if I could 
have applied a high magnifying-power to them, with trans- 
mitted light, in their living state. 

What vast numbers of free sponge-spicules of all kinds, 
fragmentary and entire, there must be floating about at the 
bottom of the sea, in the Laminarian zone, for these little 
Foraminifera, both S. scopula and S. varians, to avail them- 
selves of them so plentifully and so indiscriminately for the 
construction of their habitations! 


DIFFLUGIA. 


Having had by me for a year past the description and figure 
of a new species of freshwater Difflugia, it seems not mappro- 
priate that I should take this opportunity of communicating it; 
and, from its shape laterally not being unlike that of a plucked 
goose or other bird of that kind without wings (fanciful as 
this comparison may be), it may also not be inappropriate to 
designate it by the following appellation. 


Dtligia bipes, mihi. PI. V. figs. 6-9. 
Test oblong, somewhat compressed, expanded posteriorly, 


narrowed anteriorly (fig. 7); lateral view lageniform, with the 
body somewhat inflated (fig. 8) ; posterior extremity obtuse, 


324 = Mr. H.J. Carter on a new Species of Difflugia. 


convex, accompanied on each side by a cruriform conical ex- 
tension of the test; anterior extremity narrow, terminating in 
a contracted oral orifice bordered by pointed scales, which, in a 
circular form, slightly overlapping each other, cover the whole 
of the test in great uniformity. 

Animal composed of colourless granular sarcode, emitted 
anteriorly in obtuse pseudopodial prolongations (c) for pro- 
gression and the capture of food; ventral portion more or less 
charged with fragments of Algee and oil-globules (g) ; poste- 
rior extremity containing a large nucleus and nucleolus (e), 
several reproductive (?) cells, and one or more contracting ve- 
sicles (f,d). Body tied by three sarcodal filaments (A) to the 
posterior part of the test and to the extremities of the hollow, 
conical, leg-like appendages respectively. Molestation causing 
the body to assume a spherical form, synchronously with 
which it is suddenly retracted by the sarcodal filaments to the 
posterior end of the test (fig. 7a). Size about 1-182nd of an 
inch long by 1-353rd in its broadest part. 

Hab. Freshwater pool in heath-bog. Living on minute 
Alge (Oscillaria &c.). Progressing after the manner of Dif 
flugie generally, with the test vertical and fundus uppermost. 

Loc. Budleigh-Salterton. 

Obs. I found three or four specimens of this Difflugia about 
a year since, in the surface-pool of a heath-bog about a mile 
from this place, viz. on the 29th of January 1869. 

There were other Diflugie present ; and I sketched a large 
one having oval and square plates upon its test heterogeneously 
mixed up with grains of sand—showing that the oval and 
square plates, which frequently and respectively form the 
coverings of Difflugian tests exclusively, are derived from ex- 
ternal sources, and may be taken up by some of the Diflugie 
indiscriminately, with grains of sand and other like objects, 
although they (the oval or the square plates, as the case may 
be) are frequently selected for the covering of the test, to the ex- 
clusion of all other objects, and consequently that the presence 
of one or the other is of no specific value. (See Dr. Wallich’s 
excellent and elaborate paper, with illustrations, on the Dif- 
flugian Rhizopods, Annals, ser. 3. vol. xiii. p. 215 : 1864.) 

One cannot help noticing in this mixture an analogy with the 
arenaceous forms of Squamulina just described, which animal, 
although preferring grains of quartz and sponge-spicules, is 
not particular in taking up any thing of the kind for the forma- 
tion of its covering which it may find appropriate. 

The light yellow colour of the test of Difflugia bipes, toge- 
ther with its obtuse pseudopodia, cause it to differ from Hw- 
glypha, where the test is colourless and the pseudopodia 


On Species of Squamulina and Difilugia. 325 


pointed. Otherwise it much resembles Huglypha. Nor does 
the sudden retraction of the animal by means of the three 
sarcodal cords attached to the posterior part of its body cha- 
racterize it as a distinct species less than the peculiar form of 
the test. 


EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. 
PuLaTE IV. 


Fig. 1. Squamulina scopula, natural size. 

Fig. 2. The same, full-grown tests, magnified tive times: a, inclined posi- 
tion. 

Fig. 5. The same, full-grown test, 1-15th of an inch long, greatly magni- 
fied, to show structure and cavity: a, pedestal; 6 6 b, column; 
ce, body; d, neck; e, head; ff, brush of spicules; g, triradiate 
spicule of Grantia ciliata (calcareous) ; h, trifid spicule of Pa- 
chymatisma (?); 777, dotted line indicating shape and size of 
chambered cavity; *, aperture; //, tentacular (?) appendages 
of marine animals. 

N.B. This and the seven following figures (viz. 4 to 10, in- 
clusively) are drawn strictly on the scale of 1-24th to 1-1800th 
of an inch, to show their relative size individually and the rela- 
tive size of the parts of which they are individually composed ; 
latitude only being given to the spicular detail, wherein the 
different spicules of the head are intended to represent some of 
the varieties that may be seen in many, rather than all together 
in One specimen. 

Fig. 4. The same, summit of pedestal, with portion of column truncated 
close to neck, to show, a, circular aperture and chitinous lining. 

Fxg. 5. The same, upper portion of pedestal with part of column attached, 
lateral view, to show chitinous lining just about the neck, un- 
covered by arenaceous coat. 3 

Figs. 6 & 7. The same, disks of the pedestal left on the fucus after the 
test has been broken off, showing the form of the pseudo-septal 
divisions prolonged inwards from the margin, but ending short 
of the centre, so as to leave an open area there. 

Fig. 8. The same, pedestal with portion of column attached, broken oft 
from the disk (dried specimen), showing that the pseudo-septal 
divisions are continued up into the dome: aa, portion of animal 
substance dried, showing, by its lobed form and position, that it 
occupied the central area and the interspaces between the septal 
divisions when fresh. 

Fig. 9. The same, direct view of the pedestal under the same circumstances, 
showing the same facts more satisfactorily: a, dark portion re- 
presenting the dried animal substance. 

Fig. 10. The same, upper view of the pedestal, showing the chambered 
form of the interior through the test; test chiefly formed of the 
fragments of sponge-spicules: a, aperture of the summit; 
b, dried animal substance ; ccc, chambered cavities, lined with 
chitinous substance. 

This specimen, which I have mounted in balsam, indubitably 
homologizes the “ pedestal” with the test of a Nautiloid Fora- 
miniferous animal, together with the development of the ‘co- 
lumn ” from the initial or primary cell. 

Fig. 11. The same, lower part of column broken off from the pedestal at 


Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 4. Vol. v. 23 


326 


On Species of Squamulina and Difflugia. 


the neck while living, and the animal substance forced out by 
oa showing that it is composed of :—a, granular sarcode ; 
b, oil-globules ; eee, reproductive cells about 23-6000ths of an 
inch in diameter; d, disk of Melosira. 
N.B. All the parts of this figure are relatively magnified on a 
larger scale than the foregoing, viz. on that of 1-24th to 1-6000th 
of an inch. 


PLATE V. 


Fig. 1. Squamulina varians, mihi, greatly magnified, to show the struc- 


Fig. 


Fig. 


Fig. 


Fig. 


Fig. 


Fig. 
Fig. 


2 


‘ 


ture and cavity of the test; elevated convex form, lateral view : 
a, body; b, expanded margin of the disk by which it adheres to 
the fucus ; c, aperture ; d, dotted line indicating the form of the 
chamber ; e, projecting ends of spicules. Height of body about 
1-69th of an inch, base about 1-54th of an inch in diameter, 

N.B. This and the three following figures (viz. 2 to 4 inclu- 
sively) are strictly drawn upon the same scale as S. scopula (viz. 
1-24th to 1-1800th of an inch), to show the relative size of the 
corresponding parts in each species (8S. varians corresponding to 
the pedestal of S. scopula) and of their own parts individually, 
latitude of delineation only being allowed, as in S. scopula, to 
the spicular detail. 


. The same, discoidal portion of fig. 1, showing :—a, expanded 


margin; 6, dark shade indicating width of wall and attachment 
of body to disk ; c, dark line indicating chitinous lining ; d, cen- 
tral or internal portion of disk ; e, aperture. 


3. The same, outline of a disk showing, by the pseudo-septal pro- 


longations, a tendency to trilocular division: a, expanded mar- 
gin ; 6, central or internal area of disk; ¢c, pseudo-septal pro- 
longations ; d, aperture ; e, chitinous lining of chamber. 


. The same, outline of a disk showing a tendency to multilocular 


division: a, marginal expansion; 6, central or internal area of 
disk; cece, pseudo-septal prolongations of the test, causing the 
basal outline of the chamber to assume a crenulated appearance ; 
d, aperture; e, chitinous lining of chamber; /, disk of Melosira, 
relatively magnified. 


5. The same, amoeboid form of test: a, aperture. (Scale 1-48th to 


1-1800th of an inch.) 

This figure, on half the scale of the foregoing, is to show the 
extreme variation of form, in this species, which may exist be- 
tween the simple, symmetrical, dome-shaped figure 1 and the 
amoeboid form, figure 5. 


. Difflugia bipes, mihi, outline of test, with animal in the interior, 


greatly magnified : a, test; 6, animal; c, pseudopodia; d d, con- 
tracting vesicles; e, nucleus ; ie oil-globules and other reproduc- 
tive (?) cells; g, fragments of incepted food (Alge); h, sarcodal 
retractile filaments. (Scale 1-24th to 1-6000th of an inch.) 


7. The same, test empty, showing uniformity of arrangement in the 


scaly covering ; also, a, circular line indicating form and position 
of animal when suddenly retracted. Greatest length of test 
33-6000ths of an inch, greatest width 17-6000ths. 


8. The same, test empty, lateral view: a, imaginary position of 


9 


pseudopodia. 


. The same; scales more magnified, to show their circular form 


and mode of arrangement on the test. 


Mr. G. R. Gray on new Species of Birds. 327 


XXXIV.—Descriptions of new Species of Birds from the So- 
lomon and Banks’s Groups of Islands. By G. R. GRay. 


A COLLECTION of birds that had been obtained among the va- 
rious islands of the Pacific Ocean by Julius Brenchley, Esq., 
a series of which he has presented to the British Museum, 
enables me to select several species as new to the Solomon 
and Banks’s groups. The avifauna of the Solomon Islands 
was ably treated by Mr. Sclater at a meeting of the Zoolo- 
gical Society held on the 11th February 1869 ; and the paper 
appeared in the ‘ Proceedings’ for the same year. This 
collection containing several species hitherto undescribed 
induces me to give descriptions of them, and thus _ assist 
towards completing the ornithological knowledge of these 
islands. 
Accipiter albogularis. 


Male. The upper surface plumbeous black tinted with grey; 
the base of the feathers on the hind head white; the entire 
surface beneath the body also white, but irrorated with plum- 
beous on the chest and thighs. 

Length 17” 6”, wings 10”, bill 1” 1”, tarsi 2” 4°”. 

This bird, of which there is only a single specimen, might 
at first sight be taken for the Accipiter haplochrous of New 
Caledonia ; but it is larger and possesses a white throat, which 
at once distinguishes it from the latter-mentioned species. It 
was obtained at Hada or Recherche Bay, San-Christoval Island. 


Philemon Sclatert. 


Female. Above brown, with an olive tinge; rump and tail 
dull rufous brown, each feather of the latter margined with 
yellowish olive; wings fuscous black, with the outer margins 
of quills yellowish olive, especially of the tertials; top and 
sides of head fuscous black, each feather broadly margined on 
its sides with yellowish white ; throat white, tinged with grey, 
with a broad line of black on each side, proceeding from the 
ears; breast white, with black dashes down the middle of each 
feather, the black fading into brown on the upper part of the 
abdomen. Bill yellowish white; feet plumbeous. 

Length 11”, wings 5” 6’”, bill 1” 6”, tarsi 1” 4”. 

“ Kyes dark brown. Contents of stomach honey.” 


A single specimen only is in the collection, which was ob- 
tained at Wanga, San-Christoval. ‘This bird was recorded by 
Mr. Sclater, in his list of Solomon-Islands birds, under the 
name of Philemon vulturinus (Homb. & J.). Through the 
kindness of that gentleman, I am enabled to rectify, by com- 

23* 


328 Mr. G. R. Gray on new Species of Birds 


parison, this error, which was entirely occasioned by the 
wretched state of the specimen he had under examination. 


Ptilonopus solomonensis. 


Female, young. Bright golden emerald-green ; quills 
bluish black, with the tips dark shining green ; tertials eme- 
rald-green, all narrowly margined with yellow; abdomen and 
under tail-coverts bright king’s-yellow. 

Length 8”, wings 5”, bill 9”, tarsi 6”. 

“Kyes yellow. Contents of stomach large seeds and fruits.” 

The single specimen of this bird was also procured at 
Wanga, San-Christoyal. It is probable that the mature male 
of this species, when obtained, may prove to possess a showy 
plumage, as is the case with most of the species. 


Carpophaga Brenchleyt. 


Front of head greyish white, with the hind head grey; 
cheeks and throat pale castaneous; upper surface plumbeous 
black, tinged with grey; tail above, when closed, black, with 
the outer feathers, when expanded, and beneath all the feathers 
rufous castaneous; beneath the body of a very dark rufous 
castaneous, shading into a lighter colour on the lower abdo- 
men and under tail-coverts. 

Length 16”, wings 8°. 9", bill. 172 7, Marei 4%, 

“‘ Hyes yellow. Contents of stomach large seeds and fruits. 


Male.” 


This fine bird, of which there is only a single specimen, 
was collected at Wanga, San-Christoval, where it feeds on 
various kinds of seeds, amongst which are those of a species 
of Canarium. The soft pulp that surrounds the hard shell 
wherein the seed is placed must be the portion that nourishes 
the bird during the period they can be obtained. 


Megapodius Brenchley?. 


Young. Castaneous brown, with transverse narrow bands 
of yellowish brown on the back and wings ; throat and cheeks 
fulvous white; beneath the body more rufous than on the 
upper surface, but without any markings. 

Length 5” 6”. 

“ Eyes dark hazel.” 


A single specimen of the young bird, and two eggs (unfor- 
tunately in a broken state) were obtained at Gulf Island, 
where they were discovered in the month of September 1865. 
These eggs are, both in size and colour, very similar to that of 
Megapodius Brazier, described by Mr. Sclater in Proc. Zool. 


from the Solomon and Banks’s Groups of Islands. 329 


Soc. 1869, p. 528. In 1864, I observed, in the Proc. Zool. 
Soc. p. 42, that an egg (very similar in every respect to 
those above referred to) had been brought from San-Christoval 
Island. As Gulf Island lies close to this last-mentioned 
island, it is therefore very probable that the birds of these two 
islands may eventually prove to be of one and the same species. 

I have named these two species after Julius Brenchley, Esq., 
as a small acknowledgment for the opportunity he has given 
me of describing the new species contained in his highly 
interesting collection. 


Mr. Sclater, in his paper (Proc. Zool. Soc. 1869) previously 
referred to, has given (p. 124) a list of the species then 
known to inhabit the Solomon Islands; to which list I have 
also the means of adding, through this collection, the following 
additional species :— 


Cuncuma leucogaster. St.-Isabel and Cocatoo Islands. 
“Eyes brown. Contents of stomach pigeon.” Young. 


Haliastur leucosternon. Ugi or Gulf Island. 
““Kyes dark brown. Contents of stomach Crustacea.” 


Collocalia hypoleuca. Ugi or Gulf Island. 
“‘ Hyes black. Contents of stomach very small insects.”’ 


Halcyon albicilla, San-Christoval Island. 
“ Eyes black. Contents of stomach small Crustacea. Male.” 


Electus Linnet. St.-Isabel Island. 
“Kyes red. Contents of stomach small fig-seeds.”’ 


Electus intermedius. St.-Isabel Island. 
“ Kyes dark brown. Young female.” 


Mr. Sclater seems to have overlooked his species Cacatua 
ophthalmica, which he has stated is from this group of islands. 


This collection also contains four species of birds that had 
been obtained at Vanua Levu, which forms one of the islands 
of Banks’s group. I am thus able to record two new species 
and two other previously known species as inhabitants of this 
group of islands. 

Lalage Banksiana. 


Top of the head, back, part of wings, and a transverse pec- 
toral band black ; lore, eyebrows, sides of head, and throat 
pure white; beneath the body, part of great wing-coverts, 
tertials, rump, and tail buffy white; the latter has the middle 
feathers mostly, and outer margins of the others more or less 
black. 


330 Mr. G. R. Gray on new Species of Birds. 


Length 6”, wings 3” 3”, bill 10”, tarsi 10’. 

“ Eyes black. Contents of stomach insects. Male and 
young male,” 

Rhipidura spilodera. 

Fuscous black; eyebrows white; throat and breast white, 
each feather marked in the middle with black ; abdomen pale 
fulvous white; quills dark fuscous black ; tail fuscous black, 
with the tips and inner margins white. 

Length 7”, wings 3”, bill 7’”, tarsi 12”. 

‘“ Hyes black. Contents of stomach insects. Female.” 


This bird, of which there is only one example, is like Rhi- 
pidura pectoralis, Homb. & Jacq., of the island of Vanikoro ; 
but the spots on the breast extend up to the mentum. 


With the two preceding species the following were also 
obtained :— 


Myiagra melanura. 
“‘ Hyes dark brown. Contents of stomach insects. Young 
male.” 


Trichoglossus Massene. 
“yes red. Contents of stomach honey. Young male.” 


Mr. Sclater has recorded that an egg of a Megapode which 
he has described, under the name of Megapodius Braziert, in 
the Proc. Zool. Soc. 1869, p. 528, had been found and brought 
from the Banks’s group. Mr. Brenchley’s collection contains 
three specimens of eggs of a Megapode that were obtained at 
Vanua Levu, two of which are similar in colour and size to 
that described by Mr. Sclater; but the third example is a dirty 
white. Mr. Brenchley has a note in reference to them, that 
they were found in the vicinity of the hot springs on the 
mountains during the month of August 1865. 

The neighbouring group of islands, the New Hebrides, 
is also the abode of a species of Megapode; and we are 
told by Capt. M‘Leod that they are found abundantly, espe- 
cially on Tanna and Sandwich Islands. Both these islands 
are also referred to by Mr. Brenchley, who remarks that on 
the first-mentioned island a large bird is spoken of as living 
in the vicinity of the Vulcanos; while in the second island 
eges of a Megapode had been offered for sale. 

It may be remarked that the mature state of the bird of 
both these groups of islands is at present unknown to ornitho- 
logists. 


Another new species trom the New-Hebrides group is also 


Dr. E. Strasburger on Fertilization in Ferns. 331 


worthy of being added to these descriptions, as it is also con- 
tained in the same collection :— 


Glyciphila flavotincta. 

It is very like Glyciphila modesta, G. R.G., of New Cale- 
donia; but it is rather larger in all its proportions, and it has 
a prominent tinge of yellow on the back and beneath the body, 
which is not found on the bird referred to. 

Length 6”, wings 3” 3’, bill 12”’, tarsi 10°”. 

“Eyes black. Contents of stomach honey. Male and fe- 
male.” 

Three specimens were obtained at Exromango Island. 


XXXV.—On Fertilization in Ferns. 
By Dr. EDWARD STRASBURGER *. 


THE author affirms that he is enabled, by a series of observa- 
tions on the prothallia of Pteris serrulata and Ceratopteris 
thalictroides, to correct certain errors of previous observers as 
to the way in which fertilization is effected in Cryptogams, 
and considers that the results attained by him in these instances 
are calculated to throw a new light on the whole subject. He 
commences the account of his experiments by tracing the de- 
velopment of the antheridia, or cells producing the spermato- 
zoids, from their earliest condition, and states that the growth 
of their lateral cells presents the first example of annular- 
cell formation by division in the vegetable kingdom—a fact 
brought to notice by Dr. L. Kny in a paper communicated to 
the Society of the Friends of Natural History in Berlin, in 
November 1868+. After detailing step by step the growth of 
the cells in an antheridium, Dr. Strasburger observes that the 
new twin cells, viz. the central cell and the annular lateral 
cells, are distinguished from ordinary cells by the difference of 
their contents, the inner one being stuffed with granular proto- 
plasm, the outer ones containing, at first, an almost colourless 
sap, with a single, scarcely discernible nucleus, and a few 
scattered grains of chlorophyll. He then describes the forma- 
tion of the cells producing the spermatozoids in the following 
manner :— 

Pteris serrulata presents several forms of antheridia: in 
young prothallia they are commonly unicellular, in older ones 


* From Pringsheim’s ‘ Jahrbiicher fiir wissenschaftliche Botanik,’ vii. 
Band, 3tes Heft. Communicated by C. E. Broome, F.L.8. &e. 

+ “Ueber den Bau und die Entwicklung des Farrn-Antheridiums.” 
Berlin, 1869, (Ann. Nat. Hist. p. 255 of the present volume. ) 


aon Dr. E. Strasburger on Fertilization in Ferns. 


frequently many-celled. In unicellular antheridia the whole 
space becomes the mother cell of the spermatozoids; in those 
consisting of many cells the central cell alone becomes the 
mother cell. By a series of partitions the mother cell is 
divided into numerous small cells, which are the special mother 
cells of the spermatozoids; each of these possesses a distinct 
nucleus; by mutual pressure they become at first polygonal ; 
their arrangement then becomes confused, the nucleus disap- 
pears, giving place to a uniformly granular mass. A rose- 
coloured vacuole soon appears in this mass, the protoplasm 
gradually retreats towards the walls of its cell, the central 
vacuole becoming proportionally enlarged; small granules 
next appear suspended in the fluid contents, the protoplasm 
collected against the cell-walls divides itself into a spiral band, 
which, commencing from a single point, describes several coils 
around the central vacuole. During this process the special 
mother cells assume more and more a globose form, and sepa- 
rate themselves from each other, their walls gradually be- 
coming more delicate. 'The lateral cells meanwhile are com- 
pressed by the increasing volume of the contents of the central 
ones, and the upper or crown cell is filled by the special mo- 
ther cells. If the antheridium be now placed in water, the top 
cell is ruptured in a stellate manner by the expansive force of 
the contents, and the special mother cells make their escape 
through the opéning. The annular lateral cells of the com- 
pound antheridia now become of use; for, as the special mo- 
ther cells make their exit, the former increase in bulk, and 
force the remaining special mother cells out of the central cell. 
The spermatozoid commonly lies quiet for so long a time as the 
special mother cells require for opening; its coils are closely 
pressed one on another within the cell, and must exercise a 
certain elastic force on its walls. The softened membrane at 
last gives way, the spiral coil suddenly unfolds itself, and the 
spermatozoid moves rapidly away. ‘The special mother cell 
now disappears. During its motion the spermatozoid turns 
rapidly on its axis; its body forms three or four coils, which 
become wider as they recede. ‘The foremost narrow coils are 
beset with long cilia: on the last and widest coil a colourless 
vesicle is visible, containing numerous minute granules ; this 
seems to be the vacuole before noticed in the contents of the 
special mother cell. The vesicle is adhesive ; and the sperma- 
tozoid may be sometimes seen hanging on by it to foreign 
bodies, where it struggles to free itself, in failure of which, 
the hinder end of the spermatozoid produces itself into a long 
thread, which is eventually torn asunder. The vesicle swells 
out in water; and if the spermatozoid cannot get quit of it, it 


Dr. E. Strasburger on Fertilization in Ferns. 333 


becomes so large as to hamper its movements and prevent its 
advancing ; such spermatozoids may be seen, when the period 
of their swarming 1s nearly over, sinking to the bottom, where 
the vesicle and finally the spermatozoid are absorbed. 

Before proceeding to relate the behaviour of the spermato- 
zoids, Dr. Strasburger thus describes the development of the 
archegonia :— 

Certain cells on the underside of an old prothallium, just 
behind the indentation of the front margin, and where it has 
attained some thickness, become the mother cells of archegonia. 
One of these cells is first divided, in a direction parallel to the 
surface of the prothallium, into an inner and larger cell, which 
becomes the central cell of the archegonium, and an outer, 
rather smaller one, which, after repeated division, forms the 
neck of the archegonium ; by subsequent divisions the mother 
cell acquires two or more layers of cells. The canal through 
the neck is formed by the retreat of its central layer of cells 
from their contact with each other, or by absorption, where a 
central layer exists. But previously to this a delicate spherical 
cell is formed around the nucleus of the central cell, which 
becomes the mother cell of the future plant. A mass of proto- 
plasm is then collected around the nucleus of the central cell, 
the protoplasm is separated from the other contents of the 
central cell by a convex line of demarcation, and thus becomes 
an independent cell; but no membrane composed of cellulose 
is demonstrable. The cell formed within the central cell is 
not the germ-vesicle, but rather the canal-cell, as Pringsheim 
has shown in Salvinia. The remaining contents of the cen- 
tral cell constitute the future germ-sphere; in its midst, close 
beneath the canal-cell, there lies a large nucleus with a dis- 
tinct nucleolus. After further divisions of the neck-cells, the 
canal-cell pushes itself between them, and carries them up 
with it; within this cell a number of nuclei may now be seen. 
The growth of the cells of the neck does not proceed equally 
on all sides, so that the neck is bent down, and its crown cell 
turned towards the prothallium. When the number of the 
neck-cells is complete, another series of divisions takes place 
in the cells surrounding the central cell; at the same time the 
nuclei of the canal-cells resolve themselves slowly into a num- 
ber of little granules, and unite at length into a granular mass, 
which soon fills the whole canal. The lower neck-cells now 
enlarge, thereby diminishing that portion of the canal; and its 
granular contents are thus partially forced into the upper part, 
there forming a wedge-shaped mass, which connects itself by 
a frequently very slender thread with that occupying the cen- 
tral cell. If the archegonium be now brought into contact 


334 Dr. E. Strasburger on Fertilization in Ferns, 


with water, the contents of the canal swell visibly, and a 
number of vacuoles appear in the internal granular mass. 
The distention increases ; and at the apex, where the wedge- 
shaped mass was collected, the pressure becomes considerable : 
the free space in the canal is thus enlarged, and at last the 
upper cells of the neck can no longer resist; they part at the 
angles of contact, and the mucus is ejected with considerable 
force. The opening of the canal of the neck occurs at two 
periods : at first the mucus, which is massed at the summit, is 
poured out, either at once or at short intervals; then a period 
of rest occurs, after which the mass collected in the central 
cell is ejected altogether. The mucus is voided with sufficient 
force to remove any foreign bodies that may lie before the 
mouth of the canal, and thus to clear its orifice. The granular 
inner mucus is thus deposited at some little distance from the 
mouth of the archegonium ; the outer, highly refractive mucus, 
on the other hand, which lined the walls of the canal, diffuses 
itself in the water in lines radiating from its mouth. After 
this evacuation the naked germ-sphere remains in the central 
cell; it assumes a globose form; and a transparent spot may, 
under favourable circumstances, be seen at its summit just 
above the nucleus, which may be denominated the germ-spot. 
The germ-sphere is now ready for fertilization. 

Dr. Strasburger has been able to follow this process in all 
its details. In Pterds the opening of the canal and the entrance 
of the spermatozoids can be readily seen; but Ceratopteris 
exhibits in the clearest manner the proceedings of these bodies 
within the central cell, owing to the transparency of its pro- 
thallium. After the canal was opened, the spermatozoids, 
which had previously passed by it with the same indifference 
that they exhibited towards other bodies, showed a remarkable 
behaviour. When they reached the mucus before the canal, 
their movements became slower; they were evidently detained 
there, and their motion stopped, by an opposing medium : 
several remained fast in the mucus; others succeeded in freeing 
ing themselves and hastened away. But generally the course 
of the spermatozoid was so directed by the mucus radiating 
from the mouth of the canal that it steered head foremost for 
that aperture. One is not to imagine, however, that there 
was any diffusing stream or whirlpool, seizing on the sperma- 
tozoid and drawing it towards the orifice; for small granules 
remained perfectly quiescent in that position. The movement 
of the spermatozoid within the mucus then became slower ; it 
did not cease to revolve on its axis, but the mucus directed it 
to the canal; so that its operation there may be compared to 
the action of the stigmatic juice, or of the tela conductrix 


Dr. E. Strasburger on Fertilization in Ferns. 335 


which directs the pollen-tube in Phanerogams towards the 
germ-vesicle. 

We have here a proof of the fallacy of Roze’s notion that it 
is the caudal bladder of the spermatozoid which contains the 
fertilizing matter. The greater number of these bodies had 
already lost this appendage before they reached the archego- 
nium; others, which retained it at that time, lost it in the 
mucus; but no one carried it with it into the archegonial cell. 
In Ceratopteris, on one occasion, six spermatozoids, which had 
just escaped from their antheridium, had entered into the cen- 
tral cell of the archegonium, after which their six bladders 
were visible in the mucus before the mouth of the canal. 
Having entered the canal, the coils of the spermatozoid sepa- 
rated themselves from each other ; and if no impediment arose 
in its course, the spermatozoid soon arrived in the central cell. 
Here the coils were again drawn together, and its movements 
again became free. The first spermatozoid was soon followed 
by others: four or five were able to find room in the cell ; 
they there moved rapidly about amongst each other; later 
arrivals remained fast in the canal. In Pteris the number 
was sometimes considerable ; each new comer twisted itself in 
between those already arrived, so long as any movement was 
possible; at last it extended itself at full length. When the 
canal was already full, one of these bodies was seen to insert 
its foremost end between those previously arrived, and so on, 
till a long chain of them was formed extending outwards from 
the canal-mouth. In this chain a spermatozoid might be seen 
revolving on its axis; and sometimes one would free itself and 
hasten away; Dr. Strasburger has observed one hundred of 
these bodies in a single chain in Pteris serrulata; others 
might be seen still involved in the mucus half an hour after 
the first had reached the central cell. 

From the facts above stated, Dr. Strasburger considers it 
undeniable that it is the mucus which acts upon the spermato- 
zoids; and his opinion was confirmed by removing this sub- 
stance from the mouth of the canal, by raising the covering 
glass or with a needle, when the spermatozoid either remained 
in the mucus, and perished there, or, if it succeeded in freeing 
itself, it never more found its way back to the canal-mouth. 
The first spermatozoid that gained the central cell, either at 
once, or after wandering about a short time, impinged with its 
foremost end on the transparent or germ-spot on the summit 
of the germ-sphere, and there remained fast; it then turned 
quickly on its axis, and sank with its point slowly into the 
germ-sphere ; its movements became slower; they soon ceased 
entirely ; it continued to pass out of sight within the germ- 


336 Dr. E. Strasburger on Fertilization in Ferns. 


sphere, and dissolved away in its mass till, at the expiration 
of three or four minutes, no more could be seen of it. This 
operation was only witnessed five times out of numerous ex- 
periments, and when a single spermatozoid alone had pene- 
trated into the central cell, owing to the canal being occupied 
by adventitious matters. When several spermatozoids had 
reached the central cell, they moved about amongst each other, 
so that it was impossible to follow any individual. Sometimes 
two or three of these bodies remained with their hinder ends 
attached to the germ-spot; they turned quickly on their axis, 
pushing one another aside, till one gained the mastery, and 
was so far received that it covered up the germ-spot with its 
coils. The others were then repulsed, and moved about for 
some time, their motions ceasing at times, to be recommenced 
after short intervals ; this may have lasted eight or ten minutes, 
when they all sank to rest, and remained motionless where 
they fell. In one case, when two spermatozoids had reached 
the central cell, the second approached after the first had occu- 
pied the germ-spot a minute and a half and its front coils had 
been received into the germ-sphere; the second could not then 
displace the other, but soon relinquished its hold on the germ- 
spot, and, after long roving about, lay on its side near the 
germ-sphere. After four minutes nothing more was seen of 
the first ; and after thirty-five minutes the second was also lost 
sight of. The usual results of the fertilization followed in the 
growth and colouring of the embryo, and were very conspi- 
cuous after the lapse of a few days. 

Dr. Strasburger concludes his account by observing that 
fertilization seemed to be effected in these instances by a single 
spermatozoid, and considers it probable that the procedure is 
similar in the other Cryptogams which produce these bodies. 
The chief point of interest in the above experiments (which 
the author appears to have carried further, and to have detailed 
with greater accuracy, than previous observers) consists in the 
means adopted by nature to conduct the spermatozoids to the 
scene of their operations, and in his reasonings on the nature 
of their movement, which has been sometimes supposed to be 
connected with molecular motion by those who have not ob- 
served it with sufficient care. It remains for future inves- 
tigators to ascertain if the same facts can be traced in other 
Cryptogams. 


On the British Species of Didymograpsus. 337 


XXXVI.—On the British Species of Didymograpsus. By 
Henry ALLEYNE Nicuo.son, M.D., D.Sc.,M.A.,F.R.S.E., 
F.G.S., Lecturer on Natural History in the Extra-Acade- 
mical School of Edinburgh. 


[Plate VII.] 


THE genus Didymograpsus was originally proposed by M‘Coy 
(1851), to include those Graptolites which are “ bifid from the 
base” (Paleeozoic Fossils, p. 9). In the year 1852, Geinitz 
proposed the genus Cladograpsus, chiefly for such forms as had 
been intended by M‘Coy to be placed under Didymograpsus. 
With these, however, he placed species which have been sub- 
sequently removed by Hall to the genus Dicranograpsus (e.g. 
D. ramosus). Still, under the head of Cladograpsus Geinitz 
placed none but such forms as were understood by the species 
gemelle of Bronn, or, in his own words, “ zweiarmige oder 
gabelférmige Graptolithinen.” Recently the genus Clado- 
grapsus has been redefined by Mr. Carruthers, and has been 
made to include two generic forms which not only are in no 
sense ‘‘ species gemelle,” but which differ from one another 
so widely that they cannot be placed under the same genus at 
all (viz. Pleurograpsus linearis, Carr., sp., and Helicograpsus 
gracilis, Hall, sp.). There can be no hesitation, however, in 
retaining the term Cladograpsus simply in the sense in which 
it was employed by its original inventor—namely, as a syno- 
nym for Didymograpsus. 

The genus Didymograpsus was rejected by Hall upon very 
insufficient evidence, in the belief that all the forms included 
under this head would be found ultimately to be fragmentary, 
and to be merely portions of compound Graptolites. Hall, 
however, has failed to show that this is the case, in America, 
with any other species than D. caduceus, Salt., which he 
proved satisfactorily to be referable really to Tetragrapsus 
bryonoides, a four-stiped species. No British paleontologist, 
however, doubts for a moment the integrity of the forms re- 
ferable to Didymograpsus ; and, in point of fact, the genus is 
one of the most natural in the whole family of the Grapto- 
litidee. 

The genus Didymograpsus may be defined as comprising 
those Graptolites in which the frond is bilaterally symmetuical 
and consists of two monoprionidian branches springing from 
an “initial point,” which is generally marked by a distinct 
mucro or ‘‘radicle.’’ In some cases the radicle may be very 
rudimentary, as in D. sextans, Hall, and in some examples of 
D. bifidus, Hall; and it seems sometimes to be even altogether 
absent, as in many specimens of D. anceps, Nich. 


338 Dr. H. A. Nicholson on the British 


The species of the genus Didymograpsus may be conve- 
niently and naturally divided into three sections :— 


I. Those Didymograpst in which the radicle is on the infe- 
rior aspect of the frond, and the cellules are on the opposite or 
superior aspect, whilst the “angle of divergence”’ of the two 
stipes is not greater than 180°. This group comprises D. 
Murchisoni, D. geminus, D. affinis, D. patulus, and, in fact, 
the greater number of the Didymograpst. 

Il. Those Didymograpst in which the radicle is on the 
inferior side of the frond, and the cellules on the opposite or 
superior aspect, as before; but the angle of divergence of the 
stipes is now greater than 180°. In this group, which differs 
from the last only in the fact’ that the stipes are reflexed, are 
D. flaccidus, Hall, and D. anceps, Nich. 

Ill. Those Didymograpsit in which the radicle maintains 
its position, but the situation of the cellules is reversed, these 
being now placed on the inferior aspect of the frond, or on the 


same side as the radicle. In this group are D. sextans, Hall, 
and D. divaricatus, Hall. 


For the full comprehension of the value of “the above divi- 
sions, it is necessary to define exactly what is to be understood 
by the “angle of divergence,” since this term has been very 
loosely employed, and has led to a great deal of confusion. 
As I have before had occasion to remark, it is perfectly ob- 
vious that in any Didymograpsus the two stipes form two 
angles—one upon one side of the frond, and one upon the op- 
posite side. ach of these angles has, in different species, 
been treated as the angle of divergence; but it is absolutely 
necessary to fix accurately one of these angles, which can be 
constantly employed as a standard of comparison. In the 
foregoing definitions, therefore, and in the following descrip- 
tions, I shall employ the term “angle of divergence”’ solely 
for the angle included between the stipes on the side of the 
frond opposite to that on which the radicle is situated. The 
other angle, or the angle included between the stipes on the 
same side as the radicle, I shall term the “ radicular angle.” 
As the radicle in all cases marks the organic base of the frond, 
we obtain thus a constant standard of comparison between the 
different species, however much the position of the cellules 
may vary. 

It will, then, be at once seen, that in the first two sections 
of Didymograpsus, the “ angle of divergence” is on the same 
side of the frond as the cellules, or, in other words, it is the 
angle included between the celluliferous margins of the stipes. 
In D. sextans and D. divaricatus, however, which constitute 


Species of Didymograpsus. 339 


the third section of the genus, this state of affairs is reversed— 
the “angle of divergence” being now on the opposite side of 
the frond to the cellules, whilst it is the “radicular angle” 
which is included between the celluliferous margins of the 
stipes. 

The genus Didymograpsus is characteristically, and, as far 
as is yet known, exclusively, confined to the Lower Silurian 
period. Not only is this the case, but the genus is very de- 
cidedly more richly represented in the inferior portion of the 
Lower Silurian series than in its higher portions. The genus 
attains its maximum in the Skiddaw and Quebec group 
(Lowest Llandeilo), where it is represented by no less than 
nine British species and an equal number of American forms, 
of which, however, some appear to be nothing more than mere 
varieties. In the Lower Llandeilo or Arenig group we have 
two very characteristic British species (D. geminus, His., and 
D. patulus, Hall), both of which occur also in the Skiddaw 
Slates. In the Upper Llandeilo rocks we have four British 
species, with at least one additional American form (D. serra- 
tulus, Hall), which only occurs in Britain in the Skiddaw 
Slates. In the Caradoc or Bala series no Didymograpst occur, 
except in Ireland, where two species are found in rocks of this 
age (Baily). In the most richly graptolitiferous Caradoc beds 
which occur throughout Britain, namely the mudstones of the 
Coniston series of the north of England, no single Didymo- 
grapsus has hitherto been detected. The same absence of 
Didymograpst appears to obtain in certain strata in Scotland 
which overlie the Graptolitic shales of Moffat, and which have 
been recently described by Mr. Lapworth of Galashiels as the 
probable equivalent 0. ‘he Coniston Mudstones, under the name 
of the Gala beds. In America, however, several species of 
Didymograpsus are known to occur in the Utica Slate and 
Hudson-River group, two formations which are believed to be 
of Bala age. 

In the last edition of ‘ Siluria,’ Mr. Carruthers mentions ten 
species of Didymograpsus as occurring in Britain; but some 
of these cannot be retained as valid species. In the following 
communication I shall describe fourteen species of the genus, 
with which I am acquainted as occurring in Britain. Several 
of these, however, have been already described as fully as the 
extant materials will permit; and of these I shall merely give 
a short diagnosis accompanied by an illustration, so as to en- 
able them to be readily recognized. 


Didymograpsus patulus, Hall, sp. Pl. VII. figs. 1, 1a. 
Graptolithus patulus, Hall (Grapt. Quebee Group, p. 71, pl. 1. figs, 10-15), 


340 Dr. H. A. Nichelaeu on the British 


Didymograpsus hirundo, Salt. (Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xix. p. 187, 
fig. 13 f; Mem. Geol. Survey, vol. iii. p. 331 and pl. 11. figs. 6 & 7). 
Didymograpsus patulus (Nicholson, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xxiv. 

135). 


p- 

Frond composed of two monoprionidian stipes diverging 
from a small radicle at an angle of 180° (sometimes a little 
less, and very rarely a little more). The stipes have a very 
considerable length, reaching two or three inches each with- 
out showing any signs of a termination. ‘The stipes are 
narrow at their commencement, but widen out gradually till a 
width of one-tenth of an inch may be attained. In smaller 
specimens, however, as in the subjoined cut, this width is not 


Fig. 1. 
SSS) aa aa 
; a 


a, Small specimen of Didymograpsus patulus, Hall, from the Skiddaw Slates 
of Outerside, near Keswick, nat. size; b, fragment of D. extensus, en- 
larged, to show the smaller inclination of the cellules. 


reached. The cellules are on the opposite side of the frond to 
the radicle, or, in other words, they occupy the sides of the 
angle of divergence. The number of cellules to an inch is 
from thirty to thirty-two or thirty-four in our British speci- 
mens, but is stated by Hall as not more than from twenty-four 
to twenty-six in the American examples. The cellules make 
with the axis an angle of between 50° and 60°; the cell- 
mouths make an angle of 100° to 120° with the axis, and they 
are always produced into well-marked submucronate denticles. 
In Hall’s better-preserved specimens the outline of the cell- 
apertures is seen to be curved, and the walls of the cellules 
are marked with fine striz or lines of growth running parallel 
to the cell-mouths. 

On comparing Hall’s beautiful figures of this species with 
the woodcut in Mr. Salter’s above-quoted paper, there cannot 
be any question that D. hirundo, Salt., is the same as D. 
patulus, Hall; and the latter name must be retained, as it has 
the priority. In the Memoir of the Geological Survey (vol. iti. 
p- 331), Mz. Salter’s description confirms this in every re- 
spect. The figures 6 and 7 in pl. 11 of the same work are 
not named, but they are apparently intended for D. hivundo. 
If this be so, they neither conform with Mr. Salter’s own de- 
scription and previous figure of the species, nor with Hall’s 
account of D. patulus. It is probable, therefore, that some 
error has crept in here, and the figures have not been intended 
for D. hirundo. he Didymograpsus figured in Lyell’s ‘ Ele- 


Species of Didymograpsus. 341 


ments,’ at p. 563 (fig. 656), and by some oversight named D. 
geminus, His., is also really D. patulus. 

Loc. Skiddaw Slates of Outerside, near Keswick, and Ege- 
beck, near Pooley ; Lower Llandeilo, west of the Stiperstones. 
(Also in the Lower Graptolite schists of Sweden, and the 
Quebec group of Canada.) 


Didymograpsus V-fractus, Salt. 
(Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xix. p. 187, fig. 13 e.) 


This species, of which I subjoin a cut taken from Mr. Salter’s 
figure, was originally named by Mr. Salter from a specimen 
obtained from the Skiddaw Slates. Mr. Salter, however, 
never gave any description of the species, so that, unfortu- 
nately, it is hardly possible at present to decide positively as 
to its value. My own collection includes a few fragments, 
but no perfect specimen. The character upon which the spe- 


Fig. 2. 


Didymograpsus V-fractus, after Salter. Skiddaw Slates. 


cies was founded is the peculiar curvature of the stipes, which 
are bent abruptly outwards at the distance of about a quarter 
of an inch from the radicle. ‘The fragments in my possession 
exhibit this character, but in all other respects they are abso- 
lutely undistinguishable from D. patulus, Hall. I should 
therefore be disposed to think that the form cannot be regarded 
as more than a varvety of D. patulus, unless this character 
can be shown to be constant in a considerable number of ex- 


amples. 
Loc. Barft, near Keswick (Skiddaw Slates). 


Didymograpsus extensus, Hall, sp. Pl. VII. figs. 2, 2 a. 
Graptolithus extensus, Hall (Grapt. Quebec Group, p. 80, pl. 2. figs. 11-16). 

Frond composed of two long slender stipes diverging at an 
angle of 180° from a small radicle. The stipes attain a length 
of several inches without showing any signs of a termination. 
They have a breadth of about one-fittieth of an inch close to 
the radicle, and not more than one-fifteenth of an inch at the 
distance of three inches from the radicle. Cellules twenty-four 
in the space of an inch, making with the axis an angle of 
about 45°; the denticles angular and pointed, but not mucro- 


Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 4. Vol. v. 24 


342 Dr. H. A. Nicholson on the British 


nate, the cell-mouths making an angle of about 100° with the 
axis. 

Of this species I have only a single example, which I have 
recently obtained from the Skiddaw Slates; but its state of 
preservation is better than that of most of the Graptolites of 
this formation, and I have no doubt as to its identity with the 
Quebec form. In most characters D. extensus agrees with D. 
patulus, especially in the shape of the frond; the two forms, 
however, appear to be satisfactorily separated by some minor 
but constant differences. The stipes are altogether much 
more slender than in D. patulus; the cellules are slightly fewer 
to the inch, and make a smaller angle with the axis, and they 
are not prolonged into markedly submucronate points. To 
show these differences, I have reproduced Hall’s enlarged 
figures of fragments of the two forms (Pl. VII. figs. la & 
2a). 

Loc. Skiddaw Slates, Outerside, near Keswick. 


Didymograpsus nitidus, Hall, sp. Fig. 3. 
Graptolithus nitidus, Hall (Grapt. Quebec Group, p. 69, pl. 1. figs. 1-9). 
Ss dela nitidus (Nicholson, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xxiv. 

p. oD). 

Also figured, but not named or described, by Mr. Salter in 
the Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xix. p. 187, fig. 13 d. 

Frond composed of two simple stipes proceeding from a 
small pointed radicle at an angle of 150° to 175°. The stipes 
vary in length from one-half to three-quarters of an inch, and 
are very narrow at their commencement, but widen out till a 
width of from one-twentieth to one-fifteenth of an inch may be 


Fig. 3, 


ocean sia 
c ee 


a, Didymograpsus nitidus, from the Skiddaw Slates, nat. size ; 6, a smaller 
example, shghtly enlarged ; c, fragment, enlarged, to show the cellules. 


attained. ‘The cellules are on the opposite side of the frond to 
the radicle, or occupy the sides of the angle of divergence. 
They vary from thirty-two to thirty-four in the space of an 
inch, and are inclined to the axis at an angle of from 40° to 
45°. ‘The denticles are simply angular, and are not submucro- 
_ and the cell-mouths are nearly at right angles to the cell- 
walls. 

This exceedingly pretty little species occurs pretty abun- 


Species of Didymograpsus. 343 


dantly and in a state of beautiful preservation in one locality 
in the Skiddaw Slates. The specimens from which the above 
description.is taken agree pertectly with some of Hall’s figures 
(pl. 1. figs. 1, 6,9); but Hall has referred to this species other 
examples (pl. 1. figs. 3,7,8) which are considerably larger, 
and which approximate more closely to D. patulus. 


Loc. Skiddaw Slates, Barff, near Keswick. 


Didymograpsus affinis, Nich. Fig. 4. 
(Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. October 1869, pl. 11. fig. 20.) 


Frond composed of two simple linear stipes, of extreme 
tenuity, proceeding from a long pointed radicle at an angle of 
divergence of from 90° to 150°. The stipes vary in length 
from one-half to three-quarters of 
an inch each, and have a uniform 
width of not more than from one- 
fortieth to one-fiftieth of an inch, 
which never appears to be ex- 
ceeded. The cellules are on the 
opposite side of the frond to the 
radicle, or occupy the sides of the prema 
angle of divergence. In shape a, Didymograpsus affinis, from 
the cellules are altogether undis- the Skiddaw Slates, nat. size ; 
tinguishable from those of G. b, fragment of the same,/en- 
Nilssont, Barr., and they vary /@"8°¢- 

) ) y. vd 
from sixteen to eighteen in the space of aninch. They are 
inclined to the axis at an extremely low angle (from 15° to 
20°); they do not overlap one another at all; and the cell- 
mouths are from three to four times as short as the outer 
cell-walls, and form short transverse apertures at right angles 
to the axis. 

This little species occurs in great numbers, all confusedly 
matted together, in some parts of the Skiddaw Slates, it being 
rare to find a detached individual showing both sides of the 
frond. The characters of the cellules are alone quite sufficient 
to separate the species from all other known forms. 

Loc. Lower beds of the Skiddaw Slates, Barff, near Kes- 
wick; upper beds of the Skiddaw Slates, Ellergill, near Mil- 
burn, and Eggbeck, near Pooley. 


Fig. 4. 


Didymograpsus serratulus, Hall, sp. Pl. VII. figs. 8, 
3.a,36,3c¢, 3d. 
Graptolithus serratulus, Hall (Pal. N. York, vol. i. p. 274, pl. 74. fig. 5). 
Didymograpsus serratulus (Nicholson, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soe. vol. xxiv. 
p- 186). 
Frond composed of two long and very slender stipes pro- 
24* 


344 Dr. H. A. Nicholson on the British 


ceeding from a long and slender radicle and including between 
them an angle of divergence which may be stated to average 
140°. If I am right, however, in referring to this species a 
number of ill-preserved forms which occur in the Skiddaw 
Slates, the angle of divergence is exceedingly variable, ranging 
from no more than 80° up to very nearly 180°. In the figures 
which I have given of these Skiddaw-Slate specimens, fig. 3 
may be taken as the typical form; and there can be no doubt 
of the identity of this with Hall’s species. Fig. 3¢ shows a 
form apparently the same in all essential characters, but having 
an angle of divergence of close upon 180°, whilst fig. 3d ex- 
hibits a very much smaller angle, but is in other respects the 
same. The preservation, however, of these forms is so bad 
that it is impossible to be positive as to their absolute 
identity. 

In all these cases we have the following common characters, 
when the state of preservation is such as to allow of their 
determination :— 

The stipes are exceedingly slender, from one-fortieth to one- 
thirtieth of an inch at their commencement, and they widen 
out very slowly, never attaining a greater width than from 
one twenty-fourth to one-twentieth of an inch. The length of 
the stipes is very great, being over four inches in one speci- 
men. In the most typical forms the stipes are perfectl 
straight, but in others they are gently curved. The cellules 
are always on the opposite side of the frond to the radicle, or 
occupy the sides of the angle of divergence. They vary in 
number from twenty-five to more than thirty in the space of 
an inch; they make a small angle with the axis; and the 
cell-mouths are at right angles to the axis, giving the frag- 
ments a close superficial resemblance to G. sagittarius. The 
radicle is always very long and slender. 

The only Skiddaw-Slate species with which these could be 
confounded is D. extensus; but the radicle in this species 
appears to be always short and blunt, and the stipes attain a 
decidedly greater width, whilst the angle of divergence is 
constantly 180°. The preservation of the specimens here 
referred to D. serratulus 1s too poor to allow of any more mi- 
nute comparison. 

Loc. Skiddaw Slates (lower beds), Outerside and Barff, 
near Keswick; (upper beds) Thornship Beck, near Shap. 


Didymograpsus fasciculatus, Nich. Fig. 5. 
(Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. October 1869, pl. 11. figs. 21, 22.) 


Frond consisting of two simple stipes arising from a short 


Species of Didymograpsus. 345 


obtuse radicle, at a primary angle of about 330°, but after- 
wards curved away from the radicle, so as to become nearly 
horizontal. , The angle of divergence of the stipes may there- 
fore be stated upon the whole as 180°. The stipes are ex- 
tremely narrow at first, but widen out till a width of one- 


Fig. 5. 
") 


a, Didymograpsus fasciculatus, from the Skiddaw Slates, restored; 6, a 
fragment, enlarged. The inclination of the cellules to the axis is too 
great in these figures. 


twenty-fourth of an inch or more may be attained. The 
cellules are on the opposite side of the frond to the radicle, or 
occupy the sides of the angle of divergence. They are ex- 
cessively long and narrow, about twenty-four in the space of 
an inch, curved in accordance with the curvature of the stipes, 
overlapping one another for fully two-thirds of their entire 
length, the cell-mouths being at right angles to the axis. 
The common canal is extremely narrow. 

The materials in my possession for a diagnosis of this spe- 
cies are not satisfactory. Those specimens which exhibit the 
general form of the frond are too ill-preserved for a proper 
determination of the cellules; and those which exhibit the 
cellules are all fragments broken off close to the radicle. I 
am, however, fully satisfied of the identity of the two sets of 
specimens, and have therefore ventured to restore the species 
provisionally, in the hope of shortly obtaining more perfect 
examples. 

Loc. Upper beds of the Skiddaw Slates: Ellergill, near 
Milburn; Thornship Beck, near Shap; and Eggbeck, near 
Pooley. 


Didymograpsus geminus, His. Fig. 6. 


(See Hisinger, Lethea Suecica, pl. 38. fig. 3; Salter, Quart. 
Journ. Geol. Soe. vol. xix. p. 137, fig. 13 c, and Mem. Geol. 
Survey, vol. ui. pl. 118. fig. 8; Nicholson, Quart. Journ. 
Geol. Soc. vol. xxiv. p. 134, pl. 5. figs. 8-10.) 


Frond consisting of two small stipes springing from a long 
and slender radicle, at an angle of divergence which is primi- 
tively about 15°. The base is almost always more or less 
rounded; and the stipes very rapidly become parallel or sub- 


346 Dr. H. A. Nicholson on the British 


parallel, bemg bent towards the middle line so as to diminish 
the primary angle of divergence. 


The average length of the stipes Fig. 6. 
is not more than a quarter of an 
inch ; but in rare cases more than a 


half an inch may be attained. 

The width of the stipes is very 

uniform. ‘The cellules are on the 

opposite side of the frond to the 

radicle, or occupy the sides of the ey b 

angle of divergence; they are 

about thirty in the space of an Didymograpsus geminus, His., 

inch, the denticles angular, and from the Skiddaw Slates: a, an 

the cell-mouths at right angles to unuenal’y large specimen, nat. 
Sipe: : e; 6, another specimen, en- 

the axis of the stipe. Thelength jgroea’ and with the cellules 

of the radicle is from one-twelfth partially restored. 

to one-tenth of an inch. 

D. geminus is an unmistakable species, being at once reco- 
enized by the general shape of the frond (something like that 
of a tuning-fork), m which it differs from all other forms. 
Didymograpsus (Graptolithus) indentus, Hall (Grapt. Quebec 
Group, pl. 1. fig. 20), is probably a large example of this spe- 
cies; otherwise the form does not appear to be represented in 
the Silurian rocks of America. D. geminus is extremely 
abundant in some beds of the Skiddaw Slates; but it is very 
rare to find any specimen in which the form of the cellules is 
exhibited. The larger examples of the species approximate 
to the smaller forms of D. bifidus, Hall, and D. Murchisoni, 
Beck; but the shape of the cellules is sufficiently distinctive. 

Loc. Skiddaw Slates: Outerside and Barff, near Keswick ; 
Bannerdale Fell, near Mungrisedale; Thornship Beck, near 
Shap (upper beds). Lower Llandeilo: Cefn Gwynlle; Shelve, 
Shropshire. 

Didymograpsus bifidus, Hall, sp. Fig. 7. 
Graptolithus bifidus, Hall (Grapt. Quebec Group, p. 78, pl. 1. figs. 16-18, 

pl. 3. figs. 9, 10). 
act eta bifidus (Nicholson, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xxiv. 

p: . 

Frond composed of two stipes diverging from a short blunt 
radicle at an angle of from 15° to 30° (as much as 60° in a speci- 
men figured by Hall). The length of the stipes varies from a 
quarter of an inch to one inch; and the breadth varies in different 
parts of the stipe. Towards the base each stipe is very narrow; 
but it gradually expands till a width of a line may be attained 
(from one-eighth to one-quarter of an inch in American ex- 
amples), and then a gradual diminution of width takes place 


Species of Didymograpsus. 347 


towards the extremity. The celluliferous margin of each stipe 
is therefore curved, whilst the back is more or less completely 
straight. ‘The cellules are placed on the opposite side of the 
frond to the radicle, or occupy the sides of the angle of diver- 
gence. The cellules are from thirty-two to thirty-six in the 
space of an inch, long, narrow, and slightly curved, inclined 
to the axis at an angle of about 45°, the cell-mouths curved 
and prolonged into long submucronate teeth. ‘The base is 


Fig. 7. 


NAA 
ees 


L444 
4 LANA NA a, 


caer 
Q 


= 


Didymograpsus bifidus, from the Skiddaw Slates: a, typical example, 
natural size; 6, fragment of the same, enlarged, to show the cellules ; 
c, base of another individual, with a well-developed radicle; d, a small 
example hardly separable from D. Murchisoni, slightly enlarged ; e, base 
of another example, in which the radicle is quite rudimentary. 


usually rounded, with a short obtuse radicle; but in some cases 
it is much more pointed, and the radicle is pretty long. 

In its most typical form (as in fig. 7@) the distinctness of this 
species can hardly be a matter of question. The smaller forms, 
however, of D. bifidus, and especially those which have a 
pointed base and a well-developed radicle, are certainly not 
distinguishable by any good characters from the younger ex- 
amples of D. Murchisoni. This latter form, however, has 
hitherto proved so local in its distribution, and the fully grown 
forms of the two species are so distinct, that I prefer retaining 
all my Skiddaw-Slate specimens, in the meanwhile, under D. 
bifidus. 

Loc. Upper beds of the Skiddaw Slates: Ellergill, near 
Milburn (abundant and very well preserved) ; Eggbeck, near 
Pooley. Rare in the lower beds of the Skiddaw Slates : Outer- 
side, near Keswick. 

Of the nine species of Didymograpsus which I have now 
described as occurring in the Skiddaw Slates, it will be seen 
that all, except D. fasciculatus, belong to the first section of 
the Didymograpsi—namely, to those in which the cellules are 
on the opposite side of the frond to the radicle, and the angle 
of divergence is not more than 180°. Indeed D. faseiculatus 


348 Dr. H. A. Nicholson on the British 


may be regarded as no more than an apparent exception to 
this statement, as the stipes become ultimately horizontal. 
We may, therefore, conclude, as far as our present materials 
go, that the second and third sections of Didymograpsi are a 
further and later development of the primitive type of the 
genus, since they are unrepresented in rocks older than the 
Upper Llandeilo. The primitive type, however, does not 
cease to be represented with the Skiddaw and Quebec groups; 
for D. Murchisoni is characteristically Upper-Llandeilo, and 
D. serratulus occurs in the Utica Slate (Caradoc) of America. 
There is, further, one form which would invalidate this gene- 
ralization, if it were to be established in the position originally 
assigned to it by its author. I allude to the so-called Didymo- 
grapsus caduceus, originally described by Mr. Salter from 
Canadian specimens (Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. ix.), and 
afterwards figured by him from the Skiddaw Slates (did. 
vol. xix. p. 137, figs. 13, a,6). As I have elsewhere stated, 
there cannot be any hesitation in rejecting, with Hall, this 
species, as far as the Quebec group is concerned ; and an exa- 
mination of a very extensive suite of specimens from the 
Skiddaw Slates (including Salter’s original specimens) has 
fully satisfied me that Hall’s explanation applies also to the 
examples from this formation. D. caduceus, namely, as de- 
scribed by Salter, was unquestionably founded upon fragmen- 
tary examples of the four-stiped Tetragrapsus bryonotdes, Hall, 
or of the hardly separable Tetragrapsus (Graptolithus) Bigsby, 
Hall. Recently Mr. Baily has stated that Didymograpsus 
caduceus, Salter, occurs abundantly in strata of Caradoc age 
in Wexford (Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xxv. p. 160). Not 
having had the opportunity of seeing the specimens in ques- 
tion, I do not presume to express any opinion with regard to 
them, except that, if the name of D. caduceus is to be retained, 
it must be made to apply to forms different from those originally 
placed under it by Mr. Salter. It appears, however, very un- 
likely that the genus Tetragrapsus, which has hitherto not 
been discovered in any Upper Llandeilo deposit, should have 
survived into the Caradoc period; and Mr. Baily’s specimens 
are therefore likely to be genuine Didymograpst. 

Mr. Carruthers (Geol. Mag. vol. v. p. 129) admits that D. 
caduceus, Salter, has certainly four branches, but still places 
it under Didymograpsus—a position obviously unsuited for it, 
whilst he does not recognize its unquestionable identity with 
Tetragrapsus bryonotdes, which he also gives as a Didymo- 
grapsus* , 

* It being now certain that the specimens originally described by 
Salter as D. caduceus are really referable to that afterwards named by 


Species of Didymograpsus. 349 


Didymograpsus Murchisoni, Beck, sp. Pl. VII. figs. 7, 7a, 70. 


Graptolithus Murchisoni, Beck (Sil. Syst. p. 694, pl. 26. fig. 4). 
Graptolites Murthisoni, M‘Coy (Pal. Foss. ii. p. 5). 

Frond consisting of two stipes springing from a mucronate 
base, and including between them an angle of divergence of 
from 10° to 15° or 20°. The stipes vary in length from a 
quarter of an inch up to two inches or more, proceeding from 
the radicle outwards and upwards with a slight curve, and 
being then continued to their terminations nearly in straight 
limes. The width of the stipes varies greatly in different in- 
dividuals ; but they are always narrowest at the base, expand 
gradually till their full width is attained, and then gradually 
contract towards their distal extremities. The back of the 
stipe, however, is never so straight as in typical examples of 
D. bifidus, Hall, and the celluliferous margin is not so strongly 
convex. Specimens of average size have a breadth near the 
base of one twenty-fourth of an inch, and in the fully-developed 
portion of from one to one and a half line. Gigantic indivi- 
duals, however, not unfrequently occur (fig. 7 a) in which 
these same measurements are one line and a half and one- 
quarter of an inch respectively; and even these limits are 
oceasionally exceeded. The base is obtusely pointed, and is 
furnished with a long triangular mucro or radicle, the length 
of which is from one to one and a half line. In the large 
specimens, however, the radicle is much less developed pro- 
portionally, and is blunt and obtuse. The cellules are on the 
opposite side of the frond to the radicle, or occupy the sides of 
the angle of divergence, and are from twenty-two to thirty-two 
in the space of an inch, having the proximal lip of the cell-aper- 
tures prolonged into long acute denticles. In the smaller speci- 
mens the cellules form an angle of about 45° with the axis, are 
free for about half their entire length, and have the cell-mouths 
somewhat curved and nearly rectangular to the axis. In the 
larger specimens, the cellules in the fully-developed portion of 
the stipe lose many of these characters, becoming more nearly 
horizontal or rectangular to the axis, whilst they overlap one 
another throughout the greater part of their length, and have 
the cell-apertures directed decidedly downwards, owing to the 
great prolongation of the proximal margin of each. 


Hall Tetragrapsus (Graptolithus) bryonoides, Salter’s specific name should 
have the priority, as bearing the date 1853, whereas Hall’s name was 
given in 1857. The species, therefore, should be called Zetragrapsus 
caduceus, Salt., sp. There appears, however, to be no doubt that the form 
is really identical with the Fucoides serra of Brongniart, published in 
1828. In strict justice, therefore, the species should be called Tetra- 
grapsus serra, Brongn., sp. 


350 Dr. H. A. Nicholson on the British 


This well-marked species has long been known to all stu- 
dents of Silurian geology, but has never been fully described. 
It is characteristically Upper-Llandeilo, and I am not aware 
that it occurs in any other formation. One of the most re- 
markable points about this form is the extraordinary dispro- 
portion in size between different individuals. Numerous inter- 
mediate examples, however, occur, connecting the smallest 
and largest individuals; so that there can be no doubt as to 
their specific identity. 

Loc. Upper Llandeilo rocks of various parts of Wales, 
Abereiddy Bay in Pembrokeshire being one of the most noted 
localities. Llandeilo rocks of County Meath, in Ireland 
(Baily). 


Didymograpsus divaricatus, Hall, sp. Pl. VII. figs. 4 & 4 a. 
Graptolithus divaricatus, Hall (Pal. New York, vol. iii. Suppl. p. 618). 
Dicranograpsus divaricatus, Hall (Grapt. Quebec Group, p. 57). 
Didymograpsus elegans, Carruthers (in part), Geol. Mag. vol. v. pl.5. fig. 8a. 
Didymograpsus Moffatensis, Carruthers, Ann, & Mag, Nat. Hist. Jan. 1859. 

Frond consisting of two long and narrow stipes springing 
from a mucronate base, attaining each a length of from two to 
three inches or more, and including between them an “ angle 
of divergence”’ of from 90° to 130°. The base (fig. 8d) is 
convex and rounded, and is formed by a long triangular me- 
dian radicle, flanked by two shorter lateral spines, the whole 
three occupying a non-celluliferous space of over one line in 
breadth. The radicle is in its normal position on the inferior 
aspect of the frond, and the cellules are on the same side of the 
frond as the radicle. In this species, therefore, as in D. sex- 
tans, the true angle of divergence is bounded by the non- 
celluliferous margins of the stipes. The “ radicular angle,” or 
that on the same side of the frond as the radicle, is in this case 
contained between the celluliferous margins of the stipes, and 
varies from 270° to 230°. Each stipe is about one-fortieth of 
an inch in breadth at its commencement, and gradually widens 
out till a width of half a line may be attained. The cellules 
are from twenty to twenty-six in the space of an inch, their 
outer margins curved, convex, and nearly parallel to the axis, 
the denticles obtuse and rounded, and the cell-apertures form- 
ing oblique indentations or pouches which extend about half- 
way across the stipe, and are rounded-off internally. Accord- 
ing to Hall, “the surface is marked by a row of small nodes 
placed obliquely to the direction of the axis, and situated just 
- below and a little on one side of the bottom of the serrature.” 

This beautiful species (originally described by Hall from 
the Hudson-River group of America) is distinguished from all 


* 


Species of Didymograpsus. 351 


others by the possession of a median radicle and two lateral 
spines, placed on the same side of the frond as the cellules. 
D. flaccidus, Hall, has three smaller spines placed in a similar 
manner on the same side of the frond as the cellules (fig. 8) ; 


Fig. 


8. 
i" 7* AN ee 
al b la d 
a, base of D. flaceidus, Hall; b, base of D. anceps, Nich., showing the in- 
ternal radicle ; c, base of another example of D. anceps, in which there 


is no radicle; d, base of D. divaricatus, Hall, showing the radicle with 
its two lateral spines. Al enlarged. 


but the central spine of these is not the radicle, as is shown 
by the occurrence of the true radicle on the opposite side of 
the frond—this completely altering the whole relations of the 
parts. These anti-radicular ornamental spines of D. flaccidus 
have, however, been confounded by Mr. Casscaherd with the 
genuine radicle with its flanking spines in D. divaricatus. 
As regards the form of the cellules D. divaricatus cannot be 
distinguished from D. sextans, Hall, and D. anceps, Nich. 
The former, however, of these is readily distinguished by its 
general form, and the latter, as I shall immediately explain, 
is separated by the fundamental structure of the frond. 

Didymograpsus Moffatensis, Carr., and one of the specimens 
included under D. elegans, Carr., are clearly identical with one 
another; and both (unless figured upside down) appear to be 
referable to D. divaricatus, Hall, which bears the date of 1855, 
and has therefore the priority *. 

Loc. Rare in the anthracitic shales of GlenkiIn Burn, in 
Dumfriesshire (Upper Llandeilo). 


Didymograpsus anceps, Nich. Pl. VII. fig. 5, 5a, 50. 
(Geol. Mag. vol. iv. p. 110, pl. 7. figs. 18-20.) 
Frond consisting of two stipes, diverging from an initial 
point which may or may not be marked by the presence of a 


* It is quite possible that Didymograpsus 8 ag) Forchammeri, 
Geinitz, is really identical with D. divaricatus, Hall, in which case Gei- 
nitz’s name would have to be retained, as it was published in 1852. 
Accepting, however, the accuracy of the figure given by Geinitz (Die 
Grapt. pl. 5. figs. 28,29), the base appears to be destitute of the radicle 
and lateral spines so characteristic of D. divaricatus. The other figures of 
Geinitz (¢brd. pl. 5. figs. 80, 31) are certainly referable to a different form, 
probably to D. flaccidus, Hall. 


302 Dr. H. A. Nicholson on the British 


radicle. In some cases the initial point is recognized simply 
by the fact that it is the point of flexion of the frond, and from 
it the cellules point in opposite directions. In other specimens 
the initial point is marked by the presence of a slender radicle, 
the length of which varies from a mere node up to nearly one 
line. In all specimens which exhibit any traces of a radicle, 
without exception, this is on the ¢nferior, whilst the cellules 
are on the superior aspect of the frond, so that the two are on 
opposite sides (fig. 84). The result of this is, that the “ angle 
ot divergence,” properly speaking (namely, the angle formed 
by the stipes on the opposite side of the frond to the radicle), 
is in this case to be measured between the celluliferous mar- 
gins of the stipes ; and it varies from 340° to 355°. The “ radi- 
cular angle,”’ on the other hand, is included between the non- 
celluliferous margins of the stipes ; and it varies from 5° to 20°. 
The margin of the frond opposite to the radicle is never orna- 
mented by spines, and is simply formed by the coalescence of 
the bases of the first two cellules. This structure is of interest, 
as agreeing with D. seatans, Hall (at any rate, in its ordinary 
form), and apparently foreshadowing what we find in Dicrano- 
grapsus. The stipes are very little narrower at their origin 
than elsewhere; and they retain a pretty uniform width through- 
out, varying in different individuals from one twenty-fourth 
of an inch up to two thirds of a line. The cellules are not 
distinguishable in shape from those of D. divaricatus, Hall, 
and D. sextans, Hall. They are from twenty-five to thirty in 
the space of an inch, their outer margins convex and nearly 
parallel to the axis, their apices rounded off, and the cell- 
apertures forming oblique pouch-like indentations, which ex- 
tend halfway across the stipe. In some specimens, the first 
few cellules on either side of the initial point are provided 
each with a short blunt spine proceeding from the centre of 
their outer margins. In some examples there are minute 
pustules or circular depressions in the centre of each denticle 
where it joins the body of the stipe; but this phenomenon is 
not constant in its occurrence. As I have already said, in the 
shape of the cellules D. anceps is not distinguishable from D. 
divaricatus, Hall (=D. Moffatensis, Carr. ?). In all other re- 
spects, however, they are totally distinct ; and they could only 
be confounded, as they have been (Carruthers, Geol. Mag. 
vol. v. p. 129), by turning D. anceps upside down. In the 
first place, in D. anceps the radicle and cellules are on opposite 
sides of the frond, whilst in D. divaricatus they are on the 
same side. In addition to this very obvious and, indeed, 
fundamental distinction, the following points of difference may 
be mentioned :—In D. anceps the “angle of divergence,” as 


Species of Didymograpsus. 353 


measured between the stipes on the side opposite to the radicle, 
is from 340° to 355°, the radicle is not furnished with lateral 
spines, and the width of the stipes is extremely uniform in 
any given individual. In D. divaricatus, on the other hand, 
the “angle of divergence,” measured in the same way, is from 
90° to 130°, the radicle is invariably flanked by two lateral 
spines, and the stipes are considerably narrower at their com- 
mencement than towards their distal extremities. These 
points of difference should be sufficient to prevent in future 
any confusion between two species which in reality belong to 
two different sections of the Didymograpst. 
Loc. Upper Llandeilo, Dobbs’s Linn, near Moffat. 


Didymograpsus flaccidus, Hall, sp. Pl. VII. figs. 6, 6 a, 6d, 6c. 
Ss flaccidus, Hall (Grapt. Quebec Group, Suppl. p. 148, pl. 2. 

os. = . 

Ea fobs Jiaccidus (Nicholson, Geol. Mag. vol. iv. p. 110). 
Didymograpsus elegans, Carruthers (in part), Geol. Mag. vol. v. pl. 5. 
figs. 8b, 8c. 

“Frond consisting of two slender, linear, flexuous stipes, 
which are widely divergent from a small, short, obtuse radicle ”’ 
(Hall). The stipes are about one fiftieth of an inch in breadth 
at their commencement, but widen out till a width of one 
twenty-fifth of an inch may be attained, and they not unfre- 
quently reach a length of several inches without showing any 
signs of a termination. The proper “angle of divergence ” of 
the stipes, as measured on the opposite side of the frond to the 
radicle, is from 280° to 320°, whilst the “radicular angle ’”’ is 
from 40° to 80°. The radicle varies in length from one 
twenty-fourth of an inch up to one tenth, being sometimes 
long and pointed, at other times short and obtuse, whilst it is 
invariably situated on the inferior or concave margin of the 
frond. The margin of the frond immediately opposite to the 
radicle is adorned by three short and delicate processes or 
spines—one directly opposed to the radicle, and one springing 
from the first cellule on each side (fig. 8a). These spines are 
simply ornamental appendages, so to speak, and have nothing 
whatever to do with the true radicle, trom which they must be 
carefully distinguished. ‘The cellules are on the opposite side 
of the frond to the radicle, from twenty-five to thirty in the 
space of an inch, averaging twenty-eight, narrow, their outer 
margins straight or very slightly curved, inclined to the axis 
at a very low angle (about 20°), their apices usually gently 
rounded, and the cell-apertures running partially across the 
body of the stipe. 

As to the complete identity of this beautiful species with 


S54 Dr. H. A. Nicholson on the British 


the Graptolithus flaccidus described by Hall from the Utica 
Slate, there can be no doubt; and in this opinion I am fully 
borne out by Prof. Harkness, who has examined some of my 
specimens. Our British specimens have been placed by Mr. 
Carruthers under his D. elegans,which seems to befounded partly 
upon D. divaricatus, Hall, and partly upon D. flaccidus. The 
specimens figured by Mr. Carruthers as D. elegans, and really 
belonging to D. flaccidus, are figured upside down (Geol. Mag. 
vol. v. pl. 5. figs. 8b, 8c). 

Our British examples, however, agree with D. flaccidus, as 
described and figured by Hall, in the general shape of the 
frond, in the position of the radicle, in the shape of the cel- 
lules and in their number to the inch, and, in fact, in every 
essential respect, except in the fact that the American speci- 
mens appear to want the small spines which are found oppo- 
site to the radicle in our form. These, however, are not con- 
stantly preserved, even in the British specimens; and even if 
constantly wanting in the American examples, their absence 
would not be enough of itself to constitute a specific distinction. 
From D. divaricatus, Hall, the present species is distinguished 
by the fact that the cellules are on the opposite side of the 
frond to the radicle, the reverse being the case in the former ; 
whilst the characters of the cellules in the two show several 
decided points of difference. From D. anceps, Nich., in which 
the cellules and the radicle hold the same relative position as 
in D. flaccidus, the latter is distinguished by the much greater 
length and tenuity of the stipes, as well as by the different 
characters of the cellules. 

I have only to add that, in connexion with the fully grown 
fronds of this species, there often occur numerous young forms 
in different stages of development, commencing with those 
which exhibit only one or two cellules on each side of a cen- 
tral radicle (Pl. VII. fig. 6c). Even in these small forms, 
however, the three minute spines opposite to the radicle can 
be recognized. 

Loc. Upper Llandeilo rocks of Dobbs’s Linn, and Hart Fell, 
near Moffat. 


Didymograpsus sextans, Hall, sp. Fig. 9. 


Graptolithus sextans, Hall (Pal. New York, vol. i. p. 273, pl. 74. figs. 3 a-e). 

Diplograpsus (?) sextans, M‘Coy (Pal. Foss. part 2, p, 9). 

Graptolithus sextans, Salter (Quart. Journ. Geol. Soe. vol. v. p. 17, pl. 1. 
fie. 10). 

Diecranograpsus sextans, Hall (Grapt. Quebec Group, p. 57). 

Didymograpsus sextans, Baily (Characteristic British Fossils, pl. 9. figs. 
6 a-d). 


Frond consisting of two small stipes, generally from four to 


ee : é 5 it 
Species of Didymograpsus. 350 


five lines each in length, with an average breadth of about 
half a line, diverging from a mucronate base at an angle of 
about 60°. The base is rounded, and is seen, in the few 
specimens which are well preserved, to be provided with two 


Fig. 9. 


¢ . 
\ \/ 
a b 
Didymograpsus sextans: a, a specimen slightly enlarged and with the 
cellules partially restored; 6, base of the same, enlarged. 


lateral spines, and sometimes with a central minute spine or 
radicle, though this latter can only rarely be detected. The 
radicle is, as usual, on the inferior aspect of the frond, and the 
cellules are situated on the same side—a peculiarity found in 
no other Didymograpsus except D. divaricatus, Hall. The 
“angle of divergence ”’ is therefore included between the non- 
celluliferous margins of the stipes; and it is almost always 
about 60°. The “radicular angle” is bounded by the celluli- 
ferous margins of the stipes, and is, of course, about 300°. 
The cellules are from thirty to thirty-five im the space of an 
inch, and the first two are coalescent by their bases, as in D. 
anceps. In all essential respects the cellules are identical with 
those of D. divaricatus and D. anceps. The outer cell-walls, 
namely, are curved and subparallel with the axis; the denti- 
cles are obtusely rounded off; and the cell-apertures form 
oblique indentations extending about halfway across the stipe. 
These, at any rate, are the characters of the cellules in our 
British specimens, in those few examples in which they admit 
of examination, as they rarely do. In Hall’s original descrip- 
tion the cellules are said to terminate in “‘ slender mucronate 
points ;’’ but some error must undoubtedly have been made 
upon this head. This is rendered certain by the fact that Hall 
has subsequently placed D. sextans in the genus Dicranograpsus 
along with D. divaricatus, expressly upon the ground of the 
similarity in the shape of the cellules, whilst he has figured 
the latter with cellules such as I have described above. 

The propriety of placing D. sextans in the genus Dicrano- 
grapsus as this genus is understood by British paleontologists, 
may still be looked upon as an open question. In none of the 
many specimens which have passed through my hands have I 
observed any thing more than the coalescence of the first two 
cellules by their bases. ‘This, though perhaps an approxima- 


356 On the British Species of Didymograpsus. 


tion to Dicranograpsus, occurs also in D. anceps, and is not 
sufficient to require the removal of the species from Didymo- 
grapsus. Recently, however, Mr. John Hopkinson has been 
kind enough to send me drawings of some specimens which 
appear to belong, beyond a question, to D. sextans, but in 
which this amalgamation has gone further. In these, namely, 
whilst the bulk of the frond has all the characters of D. sex- 
tans, there is an exceedingly short basal portion formed by a 
coalescence of the first two or three cellules on each side. 
Whether this form is identical with Graptolithus furcatus, 
Hall (Pal. New York, vol. i. pl. 74. figs. 4a—-h), or whether it 
should be looked upon as a transition between D. sextans and 
Dicranograpsus proper, | am unable to say. D. sextans, in 
its typical form, as above described, is easily recognizable by 
the shortness of the stipes, the constancy of the angle of di- 
vergence, the presence of the radicle and the cellules on the 
same side of the frond, and the characters of the cellules. 

Loc. Abundant, but badly preserved, in the anthracitic 
shales of Glenkiln Burn in Dumfriesshire, and Cairn Ryan in 
Ayrshire ; also in several localities in Ireland (Baily). 


EXPLANATION OF PLATE VII. 


Fig. 1. Didymograpsus patulus, Hall, nat. size. From the Skiddaw Slates 
of Outerside, near Keswick. 
la. Portion of D. patulus, enlarged, to show the cellules, after Hall. 
Fig. 2. Didymograpsus extensus, Hall, nat. size. From the Skiddaw 
Slates of Outerside, near Keswick. 
2a. Fragment of D. extensus, enlarged, to show the cellules, after 
Hall. 
Fig. 3. Didymograpsus serratulus, Hall, nat. size. From the Skiddaw 
Slates of Outerside, near Keswick. 
8a. Base of D. serratulus, enlarged, after Hall. 
36. Base of D. serratulus, from another specimen, from the Skiddaw 
Slates of Outerside. Enlarged. 
3c. D. serratulus (?), from the Skiddaw Slates of Outerside, natural 
size. The angle of divergence is much greater in this than in 
ordinary specimens. 
3d. D. serratulus (?), from the Skiddaw Slates of Thornship Beck, 
near Shap. The angle of divergence in this specimen is much 
less than in ordinary specimens. Natural size. 
Fig. 4. Didymograpsus divaricatus, Hall, slightly restored from a Dum- 
friesshire specimen. 
4a, Base of a specimen of D. divaricatus, from the Upper Llandeilo 
rocks of Dumfriesshire. Enlarged. 
Fig. 5. Didymograpsus anceps, Nich., slightly enlarged. Upper Llandeilo 
rocks of Dobbs’s Linn, near Moffat. 
5a. Base of another specimen of the same, enlarged. In this speci- 
men there is no radicle. 
5. Base of another specimen of the same, in which a radicle is pre- 
sent; enlarged. 


Mr. A. G. Butler on Butterflies from the South Seas. 357 


Fig. 6. Didymograpsus flaccidus, Hall, natural size: From the Upper 

Llandeilo rocks of Dobbs’s Linn, near Moffat. 

6a. Base of another specimen of the same, enlarged, showing the 
three small spines opposite to the radicle. 

6b. Fragment of the same, enlarged, to show the cellules. 

6c. Germs of D. flaceidus, nat. size. 

Fig. 7. Small specimen of Didymoyrapsus Murchisoni, Beck, nat. size. 
From the Upper Llandeilo rocks of Abereiddy Bay, in Pem- 
brokeshire. 

7a. Large specimen of D. Murchisoni, from the same locality, nat. 
size, 

7b. Base of another small specimen of D. Murchisoni, enlarged. 
The base is considerably more obtuse and rounded in this spe- 
cimen than in fig, 7. 


XXXVIT.—List of Species in a small Collection of Butterflies 
from the South Seas, By ARTHUR GARDINER BUTLER, 
F.L.S. &e. 

A COLLECTION of Diurnal Lepidoptera has recently been sent 

to the British Museum by Julius Brenchley, Esq., which, 

though small, contains several interesting novelties. The 
species are all referable to two of the five Rhopalocerous fam1- 
hes, and the majority of them to the subfamily Danaine. 


Family Nymphalide, (Westwood) Bates. 
Subfamily Dawar, Bates. 
Genus EupLa@a, Fabricius. 


1. Euplea anthracina., 
Euplea anthracina, Butler, P. Z. S. p. 280. n. 39, p. 281. fig. 1 (1866). 
One example. South-Sea Islands. 


2. Euplea Brenchley?, sp. nov. 


3. Ale supra saturate fusce, area apicali alba; margine late fusco ; 
stria infra ramum primum medianum sericea: posticee fusce, area 
externo-anali pallidiore ; costa sericea dilutiore. 

Als subtus pallidiores, area externa alba: antice punctis tribus 
mediis violaceis quorum maximo discoidali et puncto diseali albo : 
posticee costa pallide fusca; macula discoidali serieque punctorum 
quinque discalium in serie angulata violascentium ; punctis con- 
suetis basalibus albis: corpus nigrum, albo punctatum. 

Q differt supra area anticarum alba duplo latiore et area externa 
posticarum late alba; subtus stria anticis interna alba. 

Exp. alar. une. 3, lin. 2. 


Five specimens (4¢, 19). South-Sea Islands. 
Resembles another species in the same collection, which has 
Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 4. Vol. v. 25 


358 Mr. A.G. Butler on Butterflies from the South Seas. 


a more powerful build; it is, however, allied to H. Lapeyrouset 
and LE. sepulchralis. 
3. Huplea Schmeltzi. 
Euplea Schmeltzi, Herrich-Schiiffer, Stett. ent. Zeit. 80 Jahrg. n.1-3, 
p. 70. n. 4, pl. 1. fig. 8 (1869). 
One specimen. (Upolu?) South-Sea Islands. 


Differs from the figure in the ‘Zeitung’ im having no sub- 
marginal spots above or below; but in the subapical spots of 
the front wings, and the central spots on the under surface, it 
exactly agrees with Dr. Herrich-Schiiffer’s species. 


4. Huplea Helcita. 
Euplea Helcita, Boisduval, Bull. Soc. Ent. France, p. 156 (1859). 
One individual. South-Sea Islands. 


The EF. Eschscholtzii of Felder, as figured by Dr. Herrich- 
Schiffer, is only a dwarfed specimen of this species, which is a 
race of the following. 


5. Euplea Eleutho. 
Danais Eleutho, Quoy & Gaimard in Freycinet’s Voy. pl. 83, fig. 2 (1815). 
Three examples (2). South-Sea Islands. 


This is distinct from HL. Angasii of Felder, which I erro- 
neously referred to it in my paper on this subfamily, published 
in the ‘ Transactions of the Entomological Society.’ 


6. Huplea Herrichit. 
Euplea Herrichii, Felder, Reise der Novara, p. 344. n. 477, pl. 39. figs. 3,4 
(1865 ”) =. Proserpina, Butler, in P. Z.S. p. 800 (1866). 


Two specimens. Fiji Islands. 


As the question of priority with regard to the species de- 
scribed in the ‘Novara’ seems unlikely to be satisfactorily 
settled, I am quite willing, for the benefit of science, to with- 
draw my claim. There are, however, three interesting ques- 
tions respecting the publication of the second part of the work 
which as yet I have not seen answered :—First, if the letter- 
press for the part was ready with the plates, why did the notice 
on the cover of the preceding part state that the plates for the 
succeeding part (and not the plates and letterpress or the part 
itself) would shortly be ready? Secondly, if the uncoloured 
part was to be had upon application to the publisher in 1865, 
there is still no published evidence that any copies were pub- 
licly sold that year. Thirdly, if such copies were sold, were 
they obtained by favour? and was the uncoloured form the 
complete form of the work, since some of the figures on the 
plates are not recognizable without colour? I should say not. 


Mr. A. G. Butler on Butterflies from the South Seas. 359 


7. Euplea Lorenzo, sp. nov. 


Affinis E. Jessice. Ales supra nigre, cerulescentes: antice striola 
inter nervulos secundum et tertium medianos alba; stria interno- 
diseali virescente: posticee area costali fusca; maculis septem di- 
sealibus velut in #. Jessica, sed albis. 

Ale subtus nigre, fuscescentes, purpureo micantes: antice macula 
discoidali, puncto pone eam discali striolaque superna discali 
albis; area interna fusca: posticee macula punctisque basalibus, 
maculis tribus mediis serie subrecta positis, puncto adjacente mi- 
nutissimo maculisque septem supernis albis: corpus fuscum, albo 
punctatum. 

Exp. alar. unc. 3, lin. 7. 


One specimen. South-Sea Islands. 


Closely allied to E. Jessica, Butler (Lepid. Exot. iii. p. 20, 
pl. 8. fig. 3), but differmg in having only two small spots on 
the upper surface of the front wings and in the creamy-white 
colour of all the spots. 


8. Huplea imitata, sp. nov. 


o. Ale supra saturate fusce: antice area apicali-externa alba 
opalescente, puncto adjacente costali albo ; area anali ochracea; 
costa ochraceo tincta; macula infra neryulum primum medianum 
ovali roseo-alba; margine externo tenuissime nigro-fusco: po- 
sticee plaga permagna pyriformi subcostali cellam partim tegente 
ochraceo-albida ; area costali sericea ; area externa ochracea; plicis 
internervularibus albo acuminatis; maculis octo discalibus obso- 
letis albis: corpus nigro-fuscum ; capite et prothorace albo punc- 
tatis. 

Alse subtus pallidiores: anticee area interna sordide albida; macula 
superna ovali obsoleta, altera infra ramum secundum medianum 
rotundata, roseo-alba; punctis duobus submarginalibus albis: 
posticee fuscee, plaga subapicali permagna nebulosa obscuriore ; 
area externa albicante, punctis decem submarginalibus decre- 
scentibus albis, purpureo cinctis : corpus nigrum, albo punctatum. 

Exp. alar. unc. 3, lin. 3. 


One specimen. South-Sea Islands. 

Allied to #. assimilata of Felder, which I only know from 
the figure, but which looks very like the male of H. Hurypon 
of Hewitson. 

Genus Danats, Latreille. 


1. Danais Archippus. 
Papilio Archippus, Fabricius, Ent. Syst. iii. p. 49. n. 151 (1798). 
Three examples (¢). South-Sea Islands. 


I cannot account for the existence of this species in the 
collection. It generally comes from the United States and 
St. Domingo. 

25* 


360 Mr. A. G, Butler on Butterflies from the South Seas. 


2. Danais tinsolata, sp. nov. 


3 @. Ale supra fusce, disco obsolete fulvo strigoso: anticse area 
apicali nivea, a venis (preecipue ad angulum ani) persecta, a plaga 
oblonga costali interrupta et ad apicem in puncta quinque mar- 
ginalia separata: postice fascia marginali nivea, a venis in maculas 
octo quadratas subgeminatas divisa; margine extremo nigro. 

Ale subtus pallidiores: posticze magis fulvescentes, maculis mar- 
ginalibus supernis haud geminatis. 

Exp. alar. une. 2, lin. 11. 


Two specimens (g ¢). South-Sea Islands. 


Belongs to the affinis group, but is very distinct from all 
the species hitherto described. 


3. Danais Melissa. 
Papilio Melissa, Cramer, iv. pl. 377. figs. C, D (1782). 
Two specimens. Upolu. 


Subfamily Sarrrrvz, Bates. 
Genus Xo1s, Hewitson. 
Xois Sesara. 


Xois Sesara, Hewitson, Trans. Ent. Soc. ser. 3. ii. pt. 4. p. 282, pl. 17. figs. 
3, 4 (1865). 


Fifteen specimens. Ovolo (Fiji Islands). 


Genus MELANITIS, Fabricius. 
Melanitis Leda, 
Papilio Leda, Linneeus, Syst. Nat. i. p. 773, n. 150 (1766). 
One specimen. South-Sea Islands. 


The single individual in the collection belongs to the So- 
landra type of the species. 


Subfamily Nyrupzarra, Bates. 
Genus Junonia, Hiibner. 
Junonia Villida. 
Papilio Villida, Fabricius, Mant. Ins. p, 35, n. 366 (1787). 
One example. South-Sea Islands. 


Genus DrADEMA, Boisduyal. 
Diadema Bolina. 
Papilio Bolina, Linneus, Mus, Lud. Ulr. et Syst. Nat. i. p. 781 (1766). 
Sixteen specimens (¢ ?). South-Sea Islands. 


Mr. A. G. Butler on Butterflies from the South Seas. 361 


There are three forms of this species in the collection, viz. 
P. Lasinassa ? , P. Antigone $ ¢, and a female resembling 
the male of P. Jacintha. 


Subfamily Acrzms, Bates. 
Genus Acr#@A, Fabricius. 
Acrea Andromacha. 
Papilio Andromacha, Fabricius, Syst. Ent. p. 466. n. 102 (1775). 


One specimen. South-Sea Islands. 


Family Papilionide, (Doubl.) Bates. 
Subfamily Prerm, Bates. 
Genus Pieris, Schrank. 
Pieris Teutonia, 
Papilio Teutonia, Fabricius, Syst. Ent. p. 474. n. 137 (1776). 
One specimen (¢). South-Sea Islands. 


Genus CALLIDRYAS, Boisduval. 
Callidryas lactea, sp. nov. 


3 @. Ale supra albee, apice fusco tincto; puncto disco-cellulani 
maris minutissimo, foeminze majore geminato, fusco: corpus cine- 
reum ; capite subvirescente. 

Ale subtus pallide ochracee, ochreo striolate ; puncto minuto disco- 
cellulari annulari fuscescente: antic area interna albicante : 
corpus albidum, antennis ochraceis. 

Exp. alar. une. 2, lin. 7. 


Three specimens (2¢,19). South-Sea Islands. 


This species, which has hitherto come from Australia, has 
been looked upon as the C. Thisorella of Boisduval; the 
latter, however, is an extreme form of C. Pyranthe. 


Genus TERIAS, Swainson. 
Terias Hecabe. 
Papilio Hecabe, Linneus, Syst. Nat. i. p. 763 (1766). 
One specimen. South-Sea Islands. 
A variety with narrow margin to hind wings. 


362. Mr.A.G. Butler on new Diurnal Lepidoptera. 


XXXVIII.—On new Diurnal Lepidoptera. 
By A. G. Butter, F.L.S. &e. 


Family Nymphalide, Westwood. 
Subfamily Sarrrrvz, Bates. 
Genus ANCHIPHLEBIA, Butler. 
Anchiphlebia ornata, sp. nov. 


@. Ale supra fuscee: antice ocellis quatuor permagnis nigris, albo 
pupillatis, ochraceo cinctis: posticee maculis quinque ocellaribus 
ceruleis (pupillis plus minus distinctis albo squamosis), nigro 
cinctis, ochraceo limbatis; fundo ares apicalis lilacino: corpus 
fuscum. 

Alse subtus ochres, velut in A. Hela striolate et lineate. 

Exp. alar. unc. 3, lin. 3. 


Hab. Cayenne (Deyrolle). ¢. Coll. Druce. 


This is the finest species in the genus; it is not likely to 
be the female of A. Hela, to which it is allied, as the other 
species of Anchiphlebia are alike in both sexes. 


Subfamily Nruewzarrv2z, Bates. 
Genus PYRRHOGYRA. 
Pyrrhogyra Ophni, sp. nov. 

¢. Ale supra nigerrime, fascia communi media nivea, anticarum ad 
nervulum secundum medianum oblique disrupta : postice sinuate, 
ciliis albis; puncto ad angulum analem rubro: corpus nigrum. 

Alee subtus nivez, area basali cinereo tincta: anticz stria costali et 
disco-cellulari nigro limbata, coccinea; vena mediana nigro lim- 
bata; fascia postmedia bifurcata nigra, furca inferiore in nervulo 
secundo mediano posita, superiore ad costam curvata et striam 
coccineam includente, serie submarginali macularum sub octo al- 
barum inequalium ; margine externo late olivaceo, stria obscu- 
riore antemarginali: posticee fascia disco-costali nigro-fusca, lineam 
sinuatam coccineam includente, hac ad angulum ani maculari 
albo bipupillata; disco submarginali fusco tincto, maculis sex 
ovalibus albis, primo et quarto minimis; linea antemarginali 
nigra: corpus albidum. 

Exp. alar. une. 2, lin. 11. 


Hab. Minas Geraés (Rogers). ‘Two specimens. Coll. Druce. 
Allied to P. Tiphus of Linneeus, but quite distinct. 


Genus 'TANAECIA, Butler. 


Tanaécia Orphne, sp. nov. 


d . Ale supra nigro-fusez, purpureo tincte ; striolis basalibus velut 
in 7. Trigerta, nigris ; serie angulata macularum quatuor albida- 


Mr. A. G. Butler on new Diurnal Lepidoptera. 363 


rum postmedia ; maculis sex discalibus elongatis, nigris, introrsum 
a lunulis tenuissimis albis limbatis: postice punctis sex discalibus 
nigris ; maculis octo submarginalibus nigris extrorsum a punctis 
albidis limbatis, duabus apicalibus introrsum albo marginatis: 
corpus nigro-fuscum. 

Ale subtus fere velut in 7’. dutala, striolis autem basalibus velut 
supra: corpus ochraceum. 

Exp. alar. unc. 2, lin. 5. 


Hab. Sarawak (Lowe). 'Two specimens. B.M. 
Intermediate in character between 7. lutala and JT. Tri- 


gerta, but in general appearance and colour very unlike 
either. 


Family Erycinide. 
Subfamily Newzozrwz, Bates. 
Genus ABISARA, Felder. 


Abisara Thiusto, Hewitson. 


o. Ale supra nigerrime: subtus ferruginese, apice anticarum 
aurantiaco, seriebus quatuor macularum nigrarum, extrorsum 
ceruleo marginatarum, transversalibus arcuatis; maculis tribus 
subapicalibus in anticis albicantibus. 

Exp. alar. une. 1, lin. 8. 


Hab. Sarawak (Lowe). ¢&. Coll. Druce. 92. B.M. 
Allied to T. Drupadi of Horsfield (P. Haquinus, Fabr.), 


but quite black above, without a ferruginous patch at the 
apex, and with white subapical spots as in the female. 


Abisara Zemara, sp. nov. 


Affinis A. Haquino, differt alis supra omnino obscurioribus; plaga 
apicali anticarum maris restricta brunnea, foemine ferruginea 
(haud alba): subtus maculis majoribus nigris. 

Exp. alar. g unc. 2, 9 une. 2, lin. 3. 


Hab. Sarawak (Lowe). ¢ ?. Coll. B.M. 
A representative of A. Haquinus. 


Subfamily Heycrmi, Bates. 
Genus Lymnas, Blanchard. 


Lymnas Jesse, sp. nov. 
Q. Simillima Uraneidi hyaline Q, alis subhyalinis, lilacino tinctis, 
venis omnibus late nigrescentibus; anticis dimidio apicali mar- 
ginibusque nigrescentibus ; fasciola punctoque subapicalibus mar- 


364 Mr. A. G. Butler on new Diurnal Lepidoptera. 


gines haud attingentibus albis: postice margine externo nigre- 
scente: corpus fuscum, palpis aurantiacis. 
Ale subtus albicantes, aliter velut supra. 
Exp. alar. unc. 1, lin. 11. 
Hab. Venezuela. 2. Coll. Kaden in Coll. Druce and in 
Coll. B.M. 


Unlike any other species in the genus. 


Genus LyroprerYx, Westwood. 
Lyropteryx Olivia, sp. nov. 

Q@. Ale supra nigre: antice fascia maculari, mediocri, angulata, a 
costa ad nervulum secundum medianum oblique currente, hine 
autem marginali, coccinea: postice fascia paululum latiore a venis 
nigris intersecta et introrsum dentata, coccinea: corpus fuscum, 
collo rufescente. 

Al subtus pallidiores, venis distinctioribus ; maculis basalibus coc- 
cineis, velut in LZ. Apollonia 9 positis. 

Exp. alar. une. 2, lin. 5. 


Hab. ? Coll. Kaden in Coll. Druce. 


Allied to Z. Apollonia, but differing from the female of that 
species in having a scarlet band in the front wings, and the 
basal spots below without any lilacine reflection. ‘This species 
can scarcely be the female of LZ. Lyra, as the scarlet band 
only reaches the outer margin just above the second median 
branch, and is not diffused outwardly towards the apex. 


Genus Emesis, Fabricius. 
Emesis Zela, sp. nov. 


3. Als supra fusce, characteribus basalibus linea angulata pone 
medium multifracta lineaque indistincta armillata submarginali, 
nigro-fuscis: postice striolis basalibus lineisque tribus multi- 
fractis discalibus, nigro-fuscis; plaga subapicali aurantiaca: 
corpus fuscum. 

Ale subtus fulve, striolis indistinctissimis ferrugineis; area interna 
anticarum pallidiore nigro maculata. 

Q. Alze supra fulvo-fuscz, characteribus basalibus lineisque tribus 
discalibus macularibus, nigris: subtus pallidiores, fascia angulata 
pone medium anticarum flavida; maculis marginis interni nigris, 
aliis ferrugineis. 

Exp. alar. ¢ unc. 1, lin.7; 9 une. 1, lin. 5. 


Hab. 8 3, Venezuela, Coll. Druce; Mexico, Coll. B.M. 
Not closely allied to any described species. 


Genus Cuaris, Hiibner. 
Charis Libna, sp. nov. 
3. Ale supra albe, stria basali obliqua ect costa fuscis; margine 


Mr. F. Smith on Rhipiphorus paradoxus. 365 


externo late fusco, anticarum maculas duas albas, posticarum 
unam includentibus ; linea submarginali plumbea : corpus fuscum. 
Ale subtus fere velut supra, macula autem discali posticarum magis 
elongata, striolaque anali alba: corpus albicans. 
Exp. alar. une. 1. 


Hab. Mexico? Coll. Kaden in Coll. Druce. 


Very like some species of bwotis in pattern, and unlike any 
other Charis that I have seen. 


Genus STALACHTIS, Hiibner. 
Stalachtis Evelina, sp. nov. 


3. Affinis S. Pheduse, maculis autem anticarum hyalinis latioribus 
et omnino majoribus, areola solum interna violacea; striola anali 
aurantiaca tenuiore, stria posticarum marginali tenuissima areaque 
costali fusca: corpus fuscum. 

Exp. alar. une. 1, lin. 11. 


Hab, ——? Coll. Kaden in Coll. Druce. 
Allied to S. Phedusa, but perfectly distinct from that species. 


XXXIX.—A word in explanation of a passage occurring in 
my “Concluding Observations on the Parasitism of Rhipi- 
phorus paradoxus.” By FREDERICK SMITH. 


I HAVE read, with some degree of surprise and also with much 
regret, the remarks of my friend Mr. Murray on an observation 
in my ‘‘Concluding Observations on Rhipiphorus.” The pas- 
sage is as follows :—‘ The last paragraph of the postscript is 
entirely suppositional. Mr. Murray has not shown me any of 
his specimens,” he having stated im his former paper that he 
had had that pleasure. I omitted to allude to this as being on 
his part a lapse of memory ; and possibly this may have im- 
pressed others in the same way as it did my friend. 

Nothing could have been further from my mind than to 
imply, in the most remote degree, the slightest doubt of his 
veracity. I alluded solely to the fact, which at the time was 
impressed upon my mind, that he had failed to fulfil his pre- 
vious expressed intention. Mr. Murray has now shown me 
the pup ce. alluded to; but I am still quite unable to recall 
to my mind any previous examination of them: it is therefore 
quite certain that there is a lapse of memory on one side or 
the other. Mr. Murray having given publicity to his feelings 
on the subject, I think it is necessary on my part publicly to 
disclaim any intention of expressing a doubt of his veracity. 
Any statement made by Mr. Murray is, and always has been, 
to me a guarantee for its truth. 


366 Dr. J. E. Gray on Myriosteon Higginsii. 


XL.—WNotes on Myriosteon Higginsii. 
By Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S. 


On the 12th of April 1864, I described, at the Zoological 
Society, a new form of animal under the name of Myriosteon 
Migginsii, probably indicating a new group of Echinodermata. 
(See Proc. Zool. Soc. 1864, p. 164.) 

The specimen described had been generally regarded as the 
tail of a Ray, and some considered it a shell of a gigantic 
Foraminifer or the coral of a Polyzoan ; but I was induced to 
believe, on account of the various pores and perforations on 
its surface, that it indicated a new group of radiated animals 
allied to Asterias. 

I was satisfied that it could not be the tail of a Ray; for 
that consists of vertebree covered with muscle, which is itself 
protected by a skin; whilst the specimen under examination 
is a hollow, elongated, compressed, rigid, bony cone, covered 
with hard concretions, and not at all flexible, or capable of 
movement like the tail of a fish. 

I then stated that I did not believe it was “a part of any 
vertebrated animal.” This is the part of my communication 
I wish to correct. 

Having been requested by my friend Dr. E. Perceval Wright 
to allow him to examine a fragment under the microscope, 
when it was cut off I was much struck with the great simi- 
larity of the inner surface of the tube and the calcareous 
granulation to bone; and on consideration, I am now inclined 
to believe that it is part of a fish, and most probably, as they 
are the only ones which have a granulated skin, part of a 
cartilaginous fish; but the external surface of the tube is 
much harder and bone-like than the skeletons of these ani- 
mals: it is probably an appendage of the head, like the beak 
of a sawfish. 

On showing it to my friend Mr. Carter, he stated that he 
had found a somewhat similar specimen on the coast of Arabia, 
and that he thinks it was attached to the head of a kind 
of Ray. Unfortunately, he does not recollect to whom he 
gave his specimen, but will search for the description in his 
journal on his return home; and he believes it to be a part of 
the nasal bones. 

I may observe it differs from the saw of the sawfish in being 
of a harder substance. Unfortunately, the state of my eyes, 
ever since the accident which occurred to them during the 
fire at the bookbinders of the Museum, has not allowed me to 
examine it under a microscope; but I have furnished Prof. 


Kélhiker, Dr. Giinther, Dr. Perceval Wright, and Mr. Carter 


M. F, Plateau on the Freshwater Crustacea of Belgium. 367 


with fragments of it, which they have undertaken to examine; 
and I hope one or more of them will publish the results of 
their examination. 

The fish of which it forms a part is at present unknown 
to naturalists; and therefore the name of Myriosteon Higginstt 
may be retained. 

Since the above was written, Prof. Kolliker and Dr. Giinther 
have sent me a preparation of the specimen mounted as a slide 
in Canada balsam; and they have no doubt it is part of a 
cartilaginous fish. They have now decided that it is one of 
the three or five bony tubes which strengthen and support the 
beak of the sawfish (Prist’s), and thus confirm Mr. Carter’s 
account; but how these tubes became so completely separated 
from each other and from the other bones of the beak is diffi- 
cult to imagine, and shows the great power of the sun in tro- 
pical regions. 

British Museum, April 7, 1870. 


XLI.—Researches on the Freshwater Crustacea of Belgium. 
(Second and Third Parts.) By F&itrx PLATEAu*. 


In the present day we have witnessed the appearance of many 
works on the freshwater Crustacea. In Hngland especially 
we may cite the researches of Messrs. Baird, Lubbock, Brady, 
Norman, &c., a portion of which have been published in this 
journal, After these important memoirs and those relating to 
the same subject which have appeared in Germany, Sweden, 
and elsewhere, nothing remained for me, so to speak, but to 
glean the details which have been neglected by preceding 
earcinologists. 

Genus Daphnia.—It seemed to me that it would be useful 
to make a complete study of the dermal skeleton of the Daph- 
nie, which has hitherto been very imperfectly known; I have 
endeavoured to apply to it the methods of analysis of MM. 
Milne-Edwards, Spence Bate, and others, and to compare it 
as far as possible with the cutaneous envelope of the Deca- 

oda. 
: The body includes three parts—the head, thorax, and abdo- 
men. The portion of the valves and of the test which covers 
the apparent head answers to the carapace or scapular ring of 
the higher Crustacea; the cardiac region is represented by the 
triangular piece which covers the heart, and the branchial 
region by the valves. 


* Mém. de l’Acad. Roy. de Belgique, Mém. des Savants étrangers, 
tome xxxy. Abstract communicated by the Author. 


368 M. F. Plateau on the Freshwater 


The head has undergone a remarkable curvature, which 
separates certain parts and brings others nearer together. The 
cephalic ring presents the median region (stomachal region of 
Desmarest), covering the anterior part of the digestive tube ; 
and we may recognize the existence of lateral regions. The 
facial regions are :—the frontal region, in the middle, much 
reduced in size and covering the organ of vision (it is deve- 
loped into a rostrum only in D. mucronata) ; and the orbital 
regions on each side of this. 

We may count as cephalic somites :—the first, characterized 
by the presence of the eyes; the second, by the antennules 
(ram?t); the third, by the antenne (smaller antenne of 
Strauss), and its posterior margin bears the labrum; the 
fourth is marked by the protognaths (mandibles), and bears 
the labium, whilst its hypertrophied epimera constitute the 
valves, as MM. Milne-Edwards and G. O. Sars have already 
shown. 

The thorax, which, like a great part of the abdomen, is 
enclosed between the valves, includes six somites: there is a 
fifth somite bearing the deutognaths (maxille), and a sixth 
bearing the tritognaths (first pair of feet, “of authors) and 
terminating the anterior pereion. The posterior pereion is 
formed by four somites, each bearing a pair of pereiopods. 

The abdomen consists of six somites, namely :—the eleventh, 
twelfth, and thirteenth ; the fourteenth, provided with mamille 
which close the incubatory cavity ; the fifteenth, bearing the 
caudal sete; and the sixteenth, or last, which is a true 
telson. 

Hitherto we have had scarcely any exact data as to the moult- 
ing of the Cladocera. I have been able to observe this pheno- 
menon in the female of D. mucronata. A long transverse 
fissure is formed along the branchio-cardiac furrow which se- 
parates the valves from the head; and the scapular buckler 
splits along the median line or dorsal crest of the valves. 
The head bends down in front, and a new cephalic extremity 
makes its appearance towards the back through the transverse 
fissure. The Daphnia shakes itself rapidly ; the antennules 
escape from the old ones as if these were actual sheaths; then 
the animal, by a few last efforts, finally escapes from its old 
skin through the longitudinal opening of the crest of the 
valves. The phenomenon takes place with extreme rapidity, 
the whole change only lasting two seconds. 

The circulatory apparatus presents some curious peculiari- 
ties. Thus the venous sinus which surrounds the heart is by 
no means always circular, as has been supposed. In D. pulea, 
when seen from the dorsal surface, it is polygonal, with seven 


Crustacea of Belgium. 369 


sides; at each systole these seven faces become strongly con- 
cave, at each diastole they return to their rectilinear form. 

I have found in Belgium seven species of Daphnia, a single 
Bosmina (B. longirostris, Baird), and a single Polyphemus (P. 
oculus, Miill.). The last is excessively rare. 

Copepoda.—l have made the following observations upon 
the dermal skeleton. M. Leydig has stated that the cuticle 
(epidermis) contains no calcareous deposit; I have demon- 
strated its presence chemically. The canals which traverse 
the cuticle in the higher Arthropoda are visible here only at 
the posterior margin of certain thoracic segments. The 
material which colours the skin is situated in the soft non- 
chitinous membrane (corium), and is of a granular nature. 
The animal probably lives at its expense during periods of 
forced abstinence from food ; for, according to my experiments 
and those of M. Zenker, the colour disappears when the ani- 
mal is made to fast. The blue or green colouring-substance 
undergoes no change by the action of bases; it becomes red- 
dish by the action of acids, and in this case bases do not bring 
it back to its original tint. 

The Copepoda are often indebted for other colours to their 
residence in naturally coloured waters. Following the exam- 
ple set by B. Prévost with other animals, I put some Cyclo- 
pide into water reddened by carmine; in the course of six 
days they acquired a rose-colour, and the colouring-matter 
was to be seen in the digestive tube, in the envelope of the 
oviferous sacs of the females, and in the interior of the bodies 
of the parasitic Infusoria. All these observations prove that 
in this group of Crustacea, notwithstanding the contrary 
opinion of Miiller, colour can never be regarded as a specific 
character. 

The dermal skeleton of the genera Cyclopsina, Cantho- 
camptus, and Cyclops, when subjected to the same analysis as 
that of the Daphnia, shows six cephalic somites (of which 
the tergal portions become amalgamated to form a carapace), 
four thoracic somites, and six abdominal somites, including 
the telson. ‘The appendicular organs are—a pair of anten- 
nules, a pair of antennx, a pair of protognaths, three pairs of 
maxillipeds, four pairs of thoracic feet or pereiopods (each 
including an endopod and an exopod), and, lastly, a pair of 
uropods. 

The muscular system, which is highly developed, merited a 
careful examination. Histologically the muscles are like those 
described by M. Leydig in Branchipus ; that is to say, they 
are composed of a transparent envelope and a contractile sar- 
code consisting of cuneiform elements closely interlaced. For 


370 M. F. Plateau on the Freshwater 


the sake of brevity, I shall not reproduce the description of 
the musculature of the body; but I may indicate one peculia- 
rity: in the antenne, the pereiopods, and the uropods, whilst 
we see in each moveable joint a flexor muscle, we always find 
as its antagonist a large transparent elastic cylinder, without 
any striz, and presenting here and there a few brilliant nuclei. 
This is perhaps the very elongated prolongation of a very 
short muscle. 

Notwithstanding what has been said, Cyclopsina castor 
always swims with the ventral surface downwards. Cantho- 
camptus staphylinus swims with the tail as a continuation of 
the body, and only elevates it when moving upon the glass 
plate of the microscope. Natation is effected solely by the 
antennules, and the pereiopods merely enable the animal to 
maintain its position in the midst of the liquid. The Copepoda 
possess a density higher than that of pure water. When 
recently killed, they fall to the bottom of the liquid at the rate 
of 5 millims. per second. 

The presence of an optic ganglion for each eye is the only 
new point that I have ascertamed with regard to the nervous 
system. I have reobserved the curious sleep of the Cyclopide 

spoken of by M. Zenker. 

* When submitted to the discharge of a Leyden jar of 1 litre 
capacity, these little animals fall to the bottom of the water as 
if thunderstruck ; but, singularly enough, in an hour they 
recover from this stupefaction, and swim about again with 
vivacity. There is some analogy between these results and 
those recently obtained by Dr. Richardson, who saw a pigeon 
and a toad resist the shock of a spark more than 70 centi- 
metres in length, produced by the colossal induction-coil of 
the Polytechnic Institution*, 

With regard to the digestive apparatus, I observed on the 
inner surface of the tunica propria of the first part of the in- 
testine a layer of enormous, transparent, cylindrical epithelial 
cells, which probably bear vibratile cilia. I was led to this 
last supposition by the characteristic rotatory movements un- 
dergone by particles of alimentary substances in the intestine 
of a Cyclopsina. If my observation were confirmed, it would 
prove that vibratile cilia may exist in the digestive tube of the 
Articulata (leaving the Rotatoria out of the question). 

A series of experiments made simultaneously upon Cyclops 
guadricornis and Daphnia simus, with regard to the influence 
of sea-water upon these animals, gave me the following re- 
sults. The Cyclops dies in sea-water in a few minutes; the 


* Le Cosmos, October 23, 1869, p. 445. 


Crustacea of Belgium. 371 


Daphnia resists its action scarcely for a quarter of an hour. 
M. Paul Bert ascribes the death of sea-fish in fresh water to 
the difference,of density, of osmotic power, and of the power 
of holding oxygen in solution possessed by the two liquids. 
Now these small Crustacea do not as yet verify this supposi- 
tion; for they continued living for eight days and more in a 
solution of sugar of the same density as sea-water. From my 
investigations it would appear that we must attribute the 
death of the Cyclopidee and Daphnie in sea-water to some of 
the salts which that water holds in solution. By employing 
them alone and separately, in the proportions in which they 
exist in the water of the ocean, we find that the chlorides of 
sodium and magnesium act like true poisons, and that sulphate 
of magnesia has no action. 

It was supposed until very lately that Cyclops quadricornis 
had no heart. Nevertheless a heart exists in it, and is of a 
pyriform shape, slightly constricted in the middle, with its 
broadest end in front. The only aperture I have been able to 
distinguish in it is a venous fissure at the antero-superior 
part. Whilst the heart of Cyclopsina castor is situated under 
the first thoracic ring, that of Cyclops quadricornis, on the 
contrary, is near the extremity of the sixth cephalic somite. 
It beats very slowly. 

I have entirely passed over the internal reproductive organs, 
and only attended to the genital apertures, which are less 
known. 

In Cyclops quadricornis the female genital orifice opens on 
the ventral median line, in the furrow which separates the last 
thoracic from the first abdominal somite. The last thoracic 
somite forms its upper lip, and is moved by special muscles. 
Its lower lip belongs to the following segment. 

The investigation of the mode of formation of the oviferous 
sacs has enabled me to ascertain that the elongated secretory 
organ lodged in the first and second abdominal segments, and 
opening at the vulva, is not devoted to the secretion of the 
sacs, but is a seminal receptacle. The true secretory organ of 
the oviferous sacs consists of two curved glandular ceca si- 
tuated beneath the skin of the first abdominal somite. Al- 
though at first very indistinctly visible, these glands by degrees 
acquire more distinct outlines. When the female is fecundated, 
the seminal receptacle, which is enormously swelled, ascends 
entirely into the first segment of the abdomen, which it fills 
up, and at the same time pushes upward the glands just men- 
tioned. These glands, the volume of which has increased at 
least a hundredfold, extend themselves laterally to the epimera. 
On each side we find an aperture, which has long been ear 


372 Prof. G. J. Allman on Polytrema miniaceum. 


between the epimeron and the corresponding episternal piece ; 
each of these apertures bears an oviferous sac. The glands can 
secrete the two sacs in less than ten hours. 

In the genera Cyclopsina and Canthocamptus the female 
aperture is situated upon the boundary between the first two 
abdominal segments. ‘The reservoir and the two glands exist 
as in Cyclops; but here the orifices of the glands open at the 
vulva, which bears directly the single oviferous sac. 

The oviferous sacs are secreted by layers one within the 
other; the bottom has only a single layer. 

In the male Cyclops quadricornis there are not, as has been 
supposed, two genital apertures at the angles of the last tho- 
racic somite, although two organs producing the spermato- 
phores actually exist there; but there is only a single orifice, 
in the form of a fissure, at the posterior margin of the first 
abdominal somite. 

Like the Cladocera, the Copepoda propagate with great 
rapidity. A priort one might suspect in them an apparent 
or actual parthenogenesis; but my experiments show that 
young animals isolated immediately after hatching never 
reproduced, nor did females sequestered after their first ovipo- 
sition ever produce new oviferous sacs and new eggs. More- 
over, in a state of nature, the males are sufficiently common to 
render parthenogenesis quite unnecessary for the preservation 
of the species. 


XLII.—Note on Polytrema miniaceum. 


By Prof. G. J. ALLMAN, F.R.S. 
To the Editors of the Annals and Magazine of Natural History. 


GENTLEMEN, 


Among the most abundant products of the dredge on the coast 
of Mentone is a little, red, branched, coral-like body which at- 
taches itself to various objects brought up from moderate depths. 
It is so conspicuous that it must be familiar to most naturalists 
who have studied the fauna of the Riviera, and was long ago 
described by Risso under the name of Polytrema corallina ; 
while, as De Blainville has pointed out, it appears to be iden- 
tical with the Millepora miniacea of Linneeus, whose specific 
name it must therefore receive. 

With the exception, however, of some suspicions of its 
rhizopodous affinities entertained by Gray and by Dujardin, 
its real nature appears to have been entirely misunderstood, 
systematic writers having placed it either among the true 


Prof. G. J. Allman on Polytrema miniaceum. ole 


Corals or the Polyzoa, until Carpenter, by the examination of 
dried specimens received from tropical seas, determined its posi- 
tion to be among the Rhizopoda—a determination subsequently 
adopted by Max Schultze, who, in a detailed memoir, takes a 
similar view, arrived at from an examination of Mediterranean 
specimens preserved in spirits. 

Having just had ample opportunity of examining it in a 
living state, I am enabled to confirm in all essential points the 
views of Carpenter and Schultze. Polytrema miniaceum is a 
true Rhizopod. Its calcareous skeleton forms a multitude of 
irregularly superimposed chambers, which freely communicate 
with one another by large orifices; and besides the large 
passages by which this free communication is maintained, the 
walls of the chambers are almost everywhere traversed by 
capillary canals. 

In the living state every chamber is filled with a clear 
colourless protoplasm, so transparent that its presence may be 
easily overlooked, until, by the action of alcohol or dilute acid, 
it loses its transparency and becomes obvious. ‘The proto- 
plasm passes freely from chamber to chamber through the 
wide passages by which the chambers open into one another, 
while it also sends delicate prolongations into the capillary 
canals of the walls. I can confirm Max Schultze’s observa- 
tion of the existence of siliceous spicula, resembling those of 
sponges, in the interior of the chambers; but as in many 
specimens I could find no trace of them, I can hardly avoid 
regarding their presence as accidental. 

Though there can thus be no doubt of the rhizopodous na- 
ture of Polytrema, I never succeeded in detecting the emission 
of pseudopodial extensions of the protoplasm; and the capil- 
lary processes which may be traced into the canals of the 
chamber-walls were never, during prolonged examination of 
living specimens, projected beyond the surtace. 

Any contribution to our knowledge of Polytrema will pro- 
bably be deemed of interest, more especially when we regard 
the apparent affinities of Polytrema with Hozoon, and the light 
which the structure of the living Rhizopod seems capable of 
throwing on the oldest of known organisms. 

I remain, Gentlemen, 
Yours faithfully, 
Mentone, Alpes Maritimes. GerEoRGE J. ALLMAN. 
April 2, 1870. 


Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 4. Vol. v. 26 


374 Messrs. Hancock & Atthey on the Occurrence of 


XLUI.—On the Occurrence of Loxomma Allmanni in the 
Northumberland Coal-field. By ALBANY Hancock, F.L.S., 
and 'THoMAS ATTHEY. : 


A FEW months ago we announced the occurrence in the Coal- 
shale near Newcastle of a considerable portion of the cranium 
of Anthracosaurus. We have now the pleasure of recording 
the presence of another large Labyrinthodont Amphibian in 
the same locality, Mr. Atthey having recently obtained, in the 
black shale at Newsham, a nearly perfect skull of Loxomma 
Allmanni, Huxley, which we believe to be the first authenti- 
cated specimen of this fine Labyrinthodont that has been found 
in this neighbourhood. 

The skull is complete, with the exception of the muzzle, 
which is entirely wanting; but in other respects it is In an 
excellent state of preservation. The exposed surface, which 
is that of the crown, is wholly covered with the honeycomb- 
like sculpture usual in these animals. The pits and ridges 
are remarkably regular and deep, though they are occasion- 
ally elongated ; the ridges are smooth, and have a semigloss,— 
which two characters, taken together with the colour, a dark 
brown, give to the whole surface the appearance of carved 
box-wood, 

As presented to view, the contour of the skull is triangular, 
with the apex truncated and the base or occipital region 
arched considerably inwards. The apex or muzzle not being 
present, it is impossible to say how much it was produced 
when perfect; but, judging from the gentle inclination of the 
side margins, it would seem to have been much prolonged. 
The whole of the muzzle is broken away as far backward as 
the anterior border of the enormous orbits. Across the broken 
extremity the skull measures about five inches; and the width 
of the occipital region at the widest part is nine inches; the 
length, from the broken anterior extremity to a line drawn 
between the points of the lateral expansions, is eight inches 
and a half. But if we make allowance for what is wanting of 
the muzzle, the length of the skull may be estimated as up- 
wards of twelve inches. 

The longitudinal centre of the cranium is composed of a 
comparatively narrow strip of bone, which is apparently made 
up of the frontals, the prefrontals, the parietals, the post- 
frontals, the epiotics, and the occipitals ; but it is quite impos- 
sible to determine the boundaries of these component parts, as 
the sutures are invisible, notwithstanding the fine condition of 
the specimen. ‘The anterior portion of this compound strip of 
bone divides the large oblique orbits, the posterior portion the 


Loxomma Allmanni én the Northumberland Coal-field. 375 


great lateral expansions which form the sides of the occipital 
region. In front it is a little expanded laterally, and mea- 
sures two and a quarter inches across; thence backwards for 
two and three-quarter inches the sides arch gently inwards, 
forming the inner anterior boundaries of what may be termed 
the anterior division of the orbits; and then for an inch 
and three-quarters further back the sides are more strongly 
arched in the same direction, forming the inner posterior 
boundaries of the posterior division of the orbits, there 
being at the junction of the two divisions of the inner orbital 
boundary a strong angular projection, emphatically marking 
off the two parts. At this point the interorbital bone is two 
inches wide. <A little further back, at the narrowest part, it is 
only an inch and three-eighths wide. The inner boundaries 
of the orbits appear to ‘be formed by the pre- and _post- 
frontals. 

The posterior portion of this central strip reaches from the 
hinder margin of the orbits to the occiput, the sides being very 
slightly arched outwards, and continuous with the lateral ex- 
pansions. ‘This portion of the cranium is two inches and six- 
eighths wide, and two inches and three-eighths long, measur- 
ing from the posterior boundary of the orbit to the point of 
the epiotic bone, and, rising a little above the general surface, 
is strongly defined. The occipital margin is slightly arched 
inwards, and at either side is produced backwards into short 
horns—the posterior points of the epiotic bones. This division 
of the central strip of bone is composed of the occipitals, the 
parietals, a portion of the postfrontals, and the epiotics, though 
here, as in the anterior division, the boundaries cannot be 
determined with precision. No parietal foramen can be ob- 
served. 

The lateral expansions are each three inches wide, and, ac- 
cording to Prof. Huxley, they are composed of the postorbitals, 
the malars or jugals, the squamosals, and the quadrates. 
They project backwards quite an inch and a half beyond the 
central portion of the skull. The hinder margin of each at 
first bends outwards and backwards from the side of the epiotic 
bone for about two-thirds: of its extent; it then suddenly turns 
a little forwards and terminates in a short point at the lateral 
or external angle. rom the base of this point the outer or 
lateral margin advances forwards and outwards, being at first, 
for about an inch, a little concave; it then bends a “little in- 
wards, and runs forwards in a straight line an inch and five- 
eighths further to the posterior extremity of the maxilla. 
From this poimt, which is only slightly indicated, the lateral 


walls of the skull are continued in a uniformly inclined line to 
26* 


376 Messrs. Hancock & Atthey on the Occurrence of 


the anterior extremity. The inner part of the posterior mar- 
gin is formed by a ridge which thickens and enlarges at the 
point where it turns suddenly forwards, and this thickened 
part is turned upwards and overlaps a little the upper surface 
of the skull; thence to the external point or horn the surface 
is smooth, and has the appearance of being that of a joint. 
This is apparently the tympanic bone. 

The surface-sculpture, however, does not extend so far back 
as this; it terminates abruptly in a sigmoidal line that reaches 
from the outer margin of the epiotic bone about midway be- 
tween its posterior horn and the hinder boundary of the orbit 
to the base of the outer cornu. At first this line (tltat is, its 
inner extremity) arches gracefully forwards, and then sweeps 
backwards and outwards to its outer termination, as already 
indicated. Behind this line the bone is depressed and smooth ; 
the space next the epiotic bone is of considerable extent, and 
has all the appearance of being for muscular attachment : 
probably the temporal muscles may originate here; for mus- 
cles so placed would be conveniently situated to act upon the 
articular extremity of the mandible. 

The posterior outer boundary of the orbit is formed by the 
postorbital, the limits of which can be partially traced; it is 
narrow, and extends from the postfrontal to the imner pos- 
terior border of the malar; its orbital margin is concave, and 
is inclined outwards and forwards. The limits of the malar 
are also pretty well defined; it is wide behind, before quite 
narrow, not being more than seven-eighths of an inch wide, 
including the thickness of the posterior extremity of the 
maxilla, which forms as it were a narrow border to its straight 
margin. When perfect, this narrow portion of the malar 
could not be less than two and a half inches long; more than 
two inches of it still remains, the anterior extremity having 
been broken away. The orbital boundary of this part is only 
very slightly concave; it then rather suddenly bends inwards 
and backwards as it approaches its junction with that of the 
postorbital, where there is a slight bulging inwards. From 
this point the posterior margin of the malar is bounded by the 
postorbital, the squamosal, and tht quadrate. At first this 
boundary passes inwards and backwards, then outwards and 
backwards, and finally forwards and outwards, reaching the 
straight external margin of the malar at the posterior point of 
the maxilla. This enlarged posterior portion is upwards of an 
inch and a half wide. 

The orbits are both imperfect in front, the anterior boun- 
daries having been broken away; but the form, notwithstand- 
ing, is determinable throughout. ‘They are very large, mea- 


Loxomma Allmanni ¢n the Northumberland Coal-field. 377 


suring upwards of four inches long and one‘inch and a half 
wide at the projection of the interorbital bone. Behind this 
point, which divides it into two parts, an anterior and poste- 
rior, the orbit extends obliquely outwards and forwards; and 
in front of it the anterior division, which is the larger, turns a 
little inwards and forwards. 

The maxille extend backwards to within three inches of 
the external cornua; as much as four and a quarter inches of 
the posterior portion is present: they are narrow and straight, 
and border the straight outer margin of the malar, forming the 
lateral boundaries of the cranium. In the right maxilla there 
are five teeth—four towards the anterior fractured extremity, 
and the fifth, of which the stump only remains, is seven- 
eighths of an inch from the hinder extremity. ‘Three of the 
anterior ones are perfect: the first is placed a quarter of an 
inch from the broken end of the jaw, and is about half an inch 
from the next tooth ; the second, third, and fourth are a quarter 
of an inch apart (the crown of the latter is gone) ; the fifth is 
placed an inch and three-quarters further back, the inter- 
mediate teeth having probably been removed. The remains 
of three or four teeth are observed in the left maxilla, placed 
about the same distance apart as those of the right maxilla. 

These teeth are of equal size; the perfect ones measure 
three-tenths of an inch in length; they are grooved from the 
base halfway up the crown; the upper portion is compressed 
in the direction of the long axis of the jaw, and the sides are 
produced into wide, sharp cutting-margins; the extremities 
are abruptly pointed. 

A large palatine tooth or tusk is seen a little within the 
fractured extremity of the right maxilla, sinking into the ma- 
trix ; the exposed portion is three-quarters of an inch in length; 
it is half an inch wide at the base, and is three-eighths of an 
inch wide at the upper extremity ; it is therefore probable that 
not half the tooth is seen, and that it cannot have been less 
than an inch and a half in length. 

The under surface of the specimen is partially exposed ; but 
too little is displayed, and that little is too much disturbed, to 
admit of clear elucidation. Part, however, of the basisphenoid 
and its lateral processes can be observed, as well as a portion 
of the palatal bones; also the palato-temporal foramen seems 
to be in part recognizable. 

We have already stated that this fine cranium is the first 
authenticated evidence of the occurrence of Loxomma in the 
shale of the Northumberland coal-field. Mr. Atthey, however, 
has had in his cabinet for several years the crushed cranial 
bones of this Labyrinthodont; but, owing to the confusion of 


878 Loxomma Allmanni zn the Northumberland Coal-field. 


the parts, we were quite unable to determine to which of the 
known forms to refer them, until the possession of the speci- 
men under discussion cleared up the matter. We can now 
trace distinctly the presence of the central portion of the cra- 
nium, which agrees with that before us in formy and surface- 
sculpture. A portion of a maxilla, with a few teeth attached, 
as well as considerable remains of the lateral expansions, are 
likewise determinable. 

Having now the advantage afforded by the possession of 
this almost perfect skull of Loxomma Allmanni, we are also 
enabled confidently to refer to the two magnificent Labyrintho- 
dont skulls exhibited and described, under the name of Prero- 
plax brevicornis, by Mr. James Thomson and Prof. Young, of 
Glasgow, at the meeting of the British Association held last 
year at Exeter. On passing through Newcastle on his road 
homewards, Mr. Thomson kindly gave us an opportunity of 
inspecting these specimens; and at the time we pronounced 
them to belong to Loxomma—certainly not to Pteroplax. We 
are now in a position to speak on the subject without the 
least hesitation, in confirmation of our opinion then expressed. 
That our cranium is that of Loxomma, there is not the least 
doubt; that it agrees with Mr. Thomson’s specimens generi- 
eally, and, we believe, specifically, is equally certain ; and that 
Pieroplax is distinct from Loxomma, we have the high autho- 
rity of Prof. Huxley, who has examined our type specimens 
of the former. 

This is quite evident even on a cursory examination of the 
two forms. But we may take this opportunity to state that 
Pteroplax deviates considerably, in the structure of the cranium, 
from all known Labyrinthodonts. In the conformation of the 
head it approaches the Siren. This fact was entirely over- 
looked by us at the time of the publication of our paper on the 
subject (Ann. Nat. Hist. ser. 4. vol. i. p. 266), and was not 
recognized until Prof. Huxley kindly pointed it out to us 
some time afterwards. 

Pteroplax has no posterior lateral expansions like those in 
Anthracosaurus and Loxomma, as we thought it would have 
(the whole, or nearly the whole, of the cranium is figured in 

late xv. fig. 1 of the above paper); the maxille are also 
deficient. ‘The long curved horns are undoubtedly the equi- 
valents of the lateral external cornua in Loxomma; and the 
overlying points are the homologues of the inner horns, being 
in both genera the posterior extremities of epiotic bones. 

Shortly before the occurrence of the cranium of Loxomma 
at Newsham, Mr. Atthey obtained from the same locality a 
series of vertebrae, lying nearly in natural order, with a few 


Miscellaneous. 379 


ribs scattered among them. We think these also probably be- 
long to Loromma. There are fourteen or fifteen vertebra ; 
but, unfortunately, little can be made out respecting them 
except the form and character of the bodies, the processes of 
which are not determinable, though they seem mixed up with 
the matrix, which is partly composed of iron-pyrites. 

The largest vertebree are about seven-eighths of an inch 
wide, and five-eighths of an inch long; they are slightly hol- 
lowed at the ends, with the margins a little reflected; there is 
a minute notochordal foramen in the centre; but this is not 
always visible; and the sides are hollowed or channelled, but 
do not exhibit much striation. 

The ribs are peculiar in form; they are about five inches 
long, but we cannot be certain that they are entire; the shaft 
is three-eighths of an inch wide, and is not much compressed}; 
nor do they exhibit the longitudinal groove so usual in the 
ribs of these Amphibians. The proximal extremity is ex- 
ceedingly wide, measuring across seven-eighths of an inch 3 
it is much compressed; but the capitular margin is thick and 
continues the curve of the shaft; it projects a little beyond 
the tuberculum, and is divided from it by a very shallow 
notch; the bifurcation is consequently exceedingly shallow. 
The tubercular process turns suddenly from the shaft, and, 
though thin, widens out into a large concave articular sur- 
face, much larger than that of the capitulum. 

There is, of course, no certainty that these vertebrae and 
ribs are really those of Loxomma ; but, from their occurring in 
the same locality and about the same time as the cranium, we 
may infer that it and they came from the same part of the 
seam; hence the probability that they belonged to the same 
animal; and, moreover, the ribs differ considerably from those 
of Anthracosaurus and Pteroplax, the only other large Laby- 
rinthodonts that have yet been found in the Newcastle coal- 


field. 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


The Male Prothallium of the Vascular Cryptogamia. 
By A. Mrriarper. 


Ovr knowledge of the true nature of the functions of reproduc- 
tion in plants is much less advanced than that of the functions of 
nutrition. Every work upon the former subjects therefore possesses 
great interest, especially if the author, as in the present case, rises 
to general considerations, and does not confine himself to the more 
or less minute description of certain organs. From this point of 
view the title of M. Millardet’s memoir is too modest. After de- 


380 Miscellaneous. 


scribing some new observations on the development of the micro- 
spores of the higher Cryptogamia, the author endeavours to take in 
at one view the whole series of phenomena of reproduction in the 
higher plants; and he shows how factitious are the old divisions, 
and how much less marked than was formerly supposed are the 
differences between one group and another. Without following him 
precisely in the arguments which he finds in this in favour of the 
theory of the filiation of types, we confine ourselves to regarding these 
extremely interesting observations as fresh proofs of the unity of the 
plan of creation. 

In the first part of his memoir M. Millardet investigates the ger- 
mination of the microspores of the genera Marsilea, Pilularia, 
Tsoétes, and Selaginella. He has ascertained throughout the presence 
of a more or less developed prothallium—a peculiarity which has 
escaped all other observers. In the Marsilee and Pilularie this 
prothallium is represented physiologically rather than morphologi- 
cally, if we may so speak. The antheridium, whilst becoming de- 
veloped in the heart of the microspore, leaves around it a space 
filled with a mucilaginous liquid charged with nutritive substances. 
Although no cell is to be found in them, these materials evidently 
subserve the production of the antheridium, and thus play the part 
of a true prothallium. In Jsoétes and Selaginella the prothallium, 
although morphologically better defined, plays scarcely any physio- 
logical part. The contents of the microspore, in fact, divide into 
two parts, one of which, very much smaller than the other, a true 
vegetative cell concealed in the apex of the microspore, becomes 
enveloped by a membrane, and undergoes no subsequent metamor- 
phosis. In the larger part, on the contrary, the antheridium is 
developed, and this, in the former of these genera, gives origin to 
four antherozoids only, whilst in the second it produces a much 
larger number. 

As to the antherozoids, the author takes up a position opposed to 
that of Schacht. He absolutely denies their cellular nature, re- 
gards them only as modified protoplasm, and shows that the vesicle 
which often adheres to them has no physiological importance in the 
act of fecundation, and, moreover, is very often wanting. According 
to him, it is nothing but the residue of the protoplasmic mass placed 
at the centre of the mother cell, and at the expense of which the 
antherozoid has been developed. 

In the second part of his work, M. Millardet, having ascertained 
the existence of a male prothallium where none was known before 
his researches, endeavours to bring forward the morphological im- 
portance of this fact by sketching rapidly the evolution of the prin- 
cipal types of the higher plants. As it has been expressed by M. 
Sachs, we understand by alternation of generations, or alternant 
generations, “the regular succession in the morphological cycle of 
an individual of several completely different forms, derived from so 
many profound changes in its mode of development.” Resting 
upon this difinition, the author shows successively, in the different 
groups of the higher Cryptogamia and of the Phanerogamia, the 


Miscellaneous. 381 


existence of two successive generations—one sexual, the other 
asexual. 

In the Cryptogamia the phenomenon is easily recognized. Some 
(Equisetaceze, Ferns, Ophioglossese) are /sosporee—that is to say, 
only produce a single kind of spores: these in their turn produce a 
well-developed prothallium, furnished with chlorophyll and with 
roots, and consequently capable of an independent existence. On 
the same prothallium, or on two neighbouring ones, antheridia first 
of all originate ; and these, when mature, emit antherdzoids; then 
follow archegonia, generally formed of a central cell to which access 
is gained by a canal opening outwards. Fecundation effected, the 
first period is closed; and then commences the asexual generation. 
The embryo is developed at first in the bosom of the prothallium, 
but afterwards becomes disengaged from it, and passes through the 
different phases of its development, which we have nothing to do 
with here. Finally, this second generation terminates its evolution 
by the development of the organs of multiplication, or spores, which 
always originate from a normal or modified leaf. 

The other Cryptogamia (Rhizocarpee and Lycopodiacew) are 
Heterosporee—that is to say, provided with two kinds of spores (mi- 
crospore or androspore, and macrospore or gynospore). Otherwise 
the history of their development may be very easily referred to the 
plan which we have just sketched. From the two kinds of spores 
originate prothallia, which are frequently more or less rudimentary. 
Each prothallium will produce antherozoids or archegonia according 
to its origin. When fecundation has taken place, the second genera- 
tion will commence ; the embryo, at first developed in the bosom of 
the female prothallium, will soon live an independent life, and be- 
come a complete plant. The evolution, as in the preceding case, 
will conclude by the development of the spores or organs of multi- 
plication. 

The Gymnosperms form a very natural transition between the 
Cryptogamia and the Phanerogamia properly so called. No one will 
have any difficulty in identifying the anthers with the microsporangia 
and the grains of pollen with the microspores. The cells, from one 
to three in number, which are always developed in the heart of the 
anthers, exactly represent the prothallium; the extreme cell, from 
which the pollen-tube originates, will be the antheridium. At the 
point where the pollen-tube applies itself to the ovule, it is often 
possible to distinguish, in its interior, one or more primordial cells 
representing the last trace of the mother cells of the antherozoids. 

The female organ, rather more profoundly modified, is, neverthe- 
less, still easy to recognize. The embryonal sac, or macrospore, does 
not separate from the plant like the macrospores of the Cryptogamia ; 
the embryo must, in fact, attain a degree of development much 
higher than in the preceding cases; it is therefore natural that it 
should remain adherent to the plant, especially if we consider that 
the prothallium or endosperm is very slightly developed. 

At the moment of fecundation, or even a little before this, the 
endospermic cells (prothallium) fill the embryonal sac, or macro- 


382 Miscellaneous. 


spore. At the upper part of this some of the cells are soon dif- 
ferentiated and become “ corpuscles,” which will exactly represent 
the archegonia. It is in their bosom that, when the proper moment 
arrives, the germinal cells appear, and that fecundation is effected 
by diffusion, the fecundating material successively traversing the 
membrane of the pollen-tube and that of the corpuscles. 

It is here that the second period, or asexual generation, com- 
mences; and this, in the Phanerogamia, tends to acquire much 
greater importance than the other. In proportion as the organs 
which take part in the sexual generation are more degraded, those 
which originate by asexual generation are more numerous and 
perfect. 

We have not the time to follow here the whole development of 
the embryo. We will only remark that it commences by living at 
the expense of the endosperm, as the Cryptogamic embryo lives at 
the expense of the prothallium. The development of the second 
generation is interrupted by a period of repose or lethargic sleep in 
the heart of the seed-—a fact which by no means weakens the theory. 
When, the life of the young plant having resumed its course, it has 
arrived at its perfect form, it closes its biological cycle by the pro- 
duction of organs of multiplication corresponding to the micro- and 
macrospores—that is to say, the pollen- and embryonal sacs. As in 
the Cryptogamia, these spores are produced by modified leaves ; the 
fact is proved as regards the stamens, and is probable at least in the 
case of the ovules. 

Lastly, thanks to the relations which unite them with the Gymno- 
sperms, the phenomena of reproduction of the Angiosperms may be 
reduced to the same general plan. The pollen-grain will still repre- 
sent the microspore; only there is no longer any trace of protha!- 
lium, any more than of the mother cells of the antherozoids. The 
development is limited to the expansion of the intine in the form of 
a pollen-tube. 

In the embryonal sac, or macrospore, no archegonia are deve- 
loped; the germinal cells originate directly in its midst ; but imme- 
diately after fecundation it resumes its part, and becomes the seat 
of the production of the endosperm or prothallium. The appearance 
of this, here, follows instead of preceding fecundation. The two 
periods are therefore less clearly limited in the Angiosperms than in 
other plants. They nevertheless exist ; only the second, or asexual, 
period tends always to predominate over the sexual period, as has 
been indicated in the case of the Gymnosperms. 

Finally the embryo is developed; and the asexual generation, as 
in the preceding case, is divided by a period of repose in the heart 
of the seed. At the end of the period of vegetation the plant always 
closes its biological cycle by the production of organs of multipli- 
cation ; only here the modifications are more profound, and, instead 
of reaching only the leaf destined to produce the spores, they affect 
the whole upper part of the axis, and thus is formed the flower with 
its different whorls. 

Such is the series of arguments upon which the author founds his 


Miscellaneous. 383 


idea of the unity of the functions of reproduction in-plants—an idea, 
however, which he ascribes to M. Sachs, who put it forward in his 
‘Lehrbuch der .Botanik,’ published at Leipzig in 1868. Whatever 
value we may attach to his conclusions, this memoir of M. Millardet’s 
possesses great interest. It is only to be regretted that the plates, 
which the author intends publishing hereafter in a scientific perio- 
dical, do not accompany the memoir itself.— Notice of a work published 
at Strasbourg in 1869 ; from Bibl. Univ. March 15, 1870, Bull. Sci. 
p. 275. 


Morphological Researches on the Mollusca. (First Memoir: Gastero- 
pods.) By M. Lacazn-Dururers. 


One of the most difficult types of the Mollusca to reduce to a 
theoretical plan is undoubtedly that of the Gasteropods. I propose 
to show that, by taking the relations of the organs and of the ner- 
vous system, it is always possible to refer the various forms to a 
single plan. 

Let us reduce the body of the Gasteropod, for the sake of simpli- 
city, to four parts—the head, the foot, the visceral mass, and the 
mantle. If we unroll the body of a species with a turbinated shell, 
we shall have beneath the head and behind and below the foot a 
reversed cone containing the viscera *. 

The relations of these parts are essentially variable. Thus the 
head is often separated from the visceral mass by a true neck. As 
to the mantle, its morphology is difficult. 

The study of the embryo of Ancylus enables us with ease to re- 
cognize this organ from its origin. In fact, upon the embryonic 
sphere, the head first betrays itself by the formation of the mouth, 
Soon two disks, bounded by a circular cushion, show themselves, 
the one near, the other opposite to the mouth: the former is the 
foot, the latter the mantle. At this moment the Ancylus represents 
the ideal being with the four principal paris. 

Starting from this state, we may vary the forms and explain the 
modifications of the Gasteropod-type. But, in the first place, to have 
an exact idea of the mantle, let us suppose the embryonal disk from 
which it is derived eminently elastic and extensible ; let us assume, 
further, a traction exerted upon its centre and directed backwards, 
and we shall obtain a reversed cone, of which the apex will be the 
point of application of the force of traction, and the base the part of 
the body bounded by the circular cushion of the primitive disk. 
The intestines will penetrate by traction into the cone thus formed ; 
but the foot and the head will remain without. These four parts 
will be deformed, but their relations will remain constant. 

It is then easy to account for some forms which are very different 
in appearance. For example, in the Limaces the foot increases 


* To understand this, the animal is supposed to have the head above, 
the foot in front, and the apex of the spire and the mantle behind and 
below. 


384 Miscellaneous. 


sufficiently below to lodge the viscera, and the mantle forms nothing 
more than a little disk or buckler; in the Vestacelle and the Bullew 
the foot follows the neck in its excessive development, and the 
mantle remains rudimentary at the end of the body; in the Ap/ysie 
the foot and the neck become much developed upward, but the foot 
still increases sufficiently in its lower part to cover with its two lobes 
the back and even the mantle, with which it has been erroneously 
confounded. 

The criterion which I propose enables us to determine the homo- 
logous parts. 

Four groups of nervous ganglia characterize the Mollusca in 
general and the Gasteropoda in particular: these are, first, the 
stomato-gastric, the cerebroid, and the pedal ganglia. The fourth 
group, intermediate between the latter two, always placed a little 
behind and below the pedal centre, is unsymmetrical—that is to say, 
formed by an uneven number of ganglia, generally five. It charac- 
terizes the Gasteropod group, and, except the head, the neck, the 
foot, and the viscera, it innervates all the organs. The name which 
would best designate its relations would be that of branchio-cardio- 
pallio-genital; but I shall simply call it the median or inferior centre. 
It varies much: sometimes it forms a very small ring, sometimes an 
extremely long curve which seems to modify and change all the 
relations. Thus in the Limnew, the Planorbes, and the Ancyli, 
although its ganglia are a little disjointed, it is very close to the 
other centres. Again, in the Helices, the Testacelle, the Limaces, &c. 
its five ganglia lie upon the pedal centre, and are united to it in 
such a manner by a common conjunctive tissue that they have been 
described as the posterior pedal gangha. 

In the Aplysic, the Bulle, all the Pectinibranchia, the Haliotides, 
and the Cyclostomata, the commissure which unites the inferior 
ganglia is long and twisted, and the homologous parts are difficult 
to recognize. Notwithstanding this, the general connexions remain 
constantly fixed. 

With regard to the mantle, the following facts leave no doubt. 
By numerous dissections of the most different types, I believe I am 
able to establish that this part of the body is exclusively innervated 
by the inferior centre, and that henceforward we may define it thus :— 
Any fold or cutaneous part of the body of the Gasteropod receiving 
nerves from the inferior or unsymmetrical centre is either the mantle 
or a dependence of the mantle. The forms of the pallial fold may 
vary infinitely, their connexions never. How, therefore, can we, in 
Aplysia, regard the two large lobes which ascend at the back and at 
each side upon its back as being dependences of the mantle, when 
their nerves all come from the pedal ganglia? These lobes are the 
foot itself, and they serve for swimming. 

The dorsal shield of the Zimaces is the mantle very slightly deve- 
loped ; it receives all its nerves from the inferior centre; and the 
part which is drawn out along the lower part of the body and con- 
tains the viscera, is the foot, for its nerves are derived from the an- 
terior centre. Again, in the Jestacelle, it is the upper part of the 


Miscellaneous. 385 


neck and of the foot which becomes developed and lodges the organs. 
The connexions of the nerves show the mantle reduced to that infe- 
rior part which covers the shell. 

These examples suffice to prove the utility of this principle, which 
will lead us to a single scheme, the true theoretical and ideal arche- 
type of the Gasteropod.—Comptes Rendus, December 27, 1869, 
tome lxix. p. 1344. 


A new British Land-Shell, By J. Gwyn Jurrreys, F.R.S. 


My correspondent, Mr. Thomas Rogers of Manchester, has added 
another species to this well-worked department of our fauna. Spe- 
cimens of a Zonites which he has now sent me, collected by him 
under stones at Marple Wood, in Cheshire, prove to be the Heli 
glabra of Studer, Fér. Prodr. No. 215. Z. glaber has a wide range 
on the Continent, from Normandy (where I have taken it), through 
France, Savoy, Switzerland, Germany, and Dalmatia, to Epirus in 
Greece. I also found the same species in 1846 at Grassmere, and 
in 1857 at Barmouth, but had overlooked it. Mr. Rogers’s speci- 
mens being alive, I subjoin a description of the animal. 


Bopy dark bluish grey, striped like a zebra on each side in front, 
and irregularly mottled behind ; in one of the specimens the hinder 
part of the foot is minutely speckled with yellowish-brown dots ; 
two narrow and slight parallel grooves run along the neck from the 
head to the upper lip of the shell; the surface is more or less wrin- 
kled, and has a few large but indistinct lozenge-shaped markings : 
mantle very thick and dark at the mouth of the shell, over which its 
edges are folded: tentacles, upper pair rather long, and finely granu- 
lated; lower pair very short: eyes small, placed on the upper part, 
but not at the tips, of the tentacular bulbs: respiratory orifice round, 
occupying the centre of the pallial fold: foot very long and slender ; 
the sole appears as if separated from the upper part of the foot, being 
defined by a darker line: slime thin and nearly transparent. I 
could not detect any smell of garlic (so peculiar to Z. alliarius), 
although I frequently irritated the animals. 


The shell is three times the size of that of its nearest congener, 
Z. alliarius, and is of a reddish-brown or waxy colour ; the whorls are 

re convex or swollen, the lower part of the shell is not so much 
arched, the mouth is larger, the umbilicus is smaller and narrower, 
and the colour underneath is sometimes whitish. 

27 April, 1870. 


On the presence of peculiar Organs belonging to the Branchial Appa- 
ratus in the Rays of the Genus Cephaloptera. By M. A. Dumérit. 


Having ascertained, in a large species (Cephaloptera Kuhlhi) from 
the Indian Ocean, which is wanting in the Neapolitan Museum, the 
presence of the prebranchial appendages which Prof. P. Panceri, of 
Naples, was the first to see in one of the Mediterranean species (C. 


386 Miscellaneous. 


giorna), I call attention to this anatomical peculiarity, of which he 
has given a detailed description in a memoir published in conjune- 
tion with M. L. de Sanctis. 

On examining at the bottom of the mouth the pharyngeal aper- 
tures of the branchial chambers, or separating the walls of their 
external apertures, we see, in front of each of the respiratory sur- 
faces, a very regular series of organs which do not occur in any 
other fish, whether bony or cartilaginous. [ have ascertained that 
they are wanting in two species belonging to genera nearly allied to 
Cephaloptera (namely Rhinoptera marginalis and Aftobatis narimari). 
Thus their presence appears to me, as to M. Panceri, to coastitute 
one of the essential characters of the genus Cephaloptera. 

These organs are elongated lamelle, the aspect of which somewhat 
reminds us of that of the stems of ferns, but with the leaflets turned 
back towards the branchie. Each being formed of a fold of mucous 
membrane supported by a cartilage, these lamelle are attached to 
the anterior surface of the branchial arches, in front of the mem- 
branous and vascular folds of the respiratory organs ; and it is their 
position that has suggested the name of prebranchial appendages, 
by which they are designated by the Italian anatomist. 

They do not serve for respiration. By means of injections, M. 
Panceri has ascertained that they receive arterial vessels, like the 
other organs, and not branches of the branchial artery. According 
to him, they are destined, on account of the remarkable size of the 
apertures of the branchial chambers, the orifices of which are much 
smaller in the other Rays, to retain the water and prevent it from 
traversing these cavities with a rapidity which would be injurious to 
the perfect accomplishment of the act of hematosis.—Comptes 
Rendus, March 7, 1870, tome Ixx. pp. 491, 492. 


Observations on the Turning of Fungi. 
By M. P. DucHarrre. 


The author remarks that whilst the researches of modern bota- 
nists have accounted for a great number of the vital phenomena of 
plants, there are still some whose causes remain in obscurity, al- 
though the phenomena themselves may be manifested daily to 
observation, Among these are the phenomena of direction, the 
tendencies of certain organs to hold themselves always in a parti- 
cular position, and to revurn to that position when designedly dis- 
placed from it. The favourite hypotheses upon this subject, espe- 
cially in Germany, tend to give the phenomena a purely mechanical 
character ; but the author contends that such generalizations have 
been made too hastily, and cites the following curious instance of 
the growth of a fungus under very peculiar circumstances in support 
of his opinion. 

In a garden at Meudon (Seine-et-Oise) a cask had been placed to 
serve as a reservoir for watering the garden; it was a cask of 225 
litres, having its bottom covered with a thick layer of plaster; it 


Miscellaneous. 387 


was placed on end, with its lower part sunk about 25 centimetres 
below the level of the soil, within a sort of tub large enough to leave 
between the two an annular space open above and 6 or 7 centimetres 
in width. The plastered bottom of this cask was bordered all round 
to a height of 8 centimetres, so that a vacant space of the same 
height was left beneath it. The cask was kept always full of water, 
and completely exposed to the sun during the long summer days ; so 
that the atmosphere contained in the vacant space beneath it must 
have been at once hot, moist, and dark; and the layer of plaster 
itself was a soil placed under favourable conditions in some re- 
spects. 

At the end of September 1869, the author found upon the lower 
surface of this layer of plaster more than 500 individuals of a small 
Agaric belonging to the genus Coprinus. They were at various 
stages of development, about half of them being already mature ; 
these were from 3 to 4 centimetres in height, with a slender cylin- 
drical stem and a moderately convex, delicate hood, varying in 
diameter from 12 to 15 milims. Their colour was pale, slightly 
tawny, but the hymenial lamelle were of a brownish violet tint. 
The author believes the species to be Agaricus (Coprinus) radians, 
Desmaz. 

The entire group of Agarics occupied about a quarter of the 
whole circular layer of plaster, the remaining three-quarters being 
destitute of them. They were all towards the southern part. 
Springing from the roof of the cavity under the cask, they had 
grown from above downwards, or in a direction opposite to their 
natural one; but their stems departed from the vertical by at least 
30°, their direction being towards the north. Upon this fact the 
author remarks that it is in opposition to the hypothesis, particu- 
larly maintained by Hofmeister and J. Sachs, that the action of 
gravity has much to do with the direction of the organs of plants: 
if the little Agarics had yielded to the action of gravity, they would 
have followed the vertical line, from which they all departed. 

The author also calls attention to the difficulty of understanding 
the cause of the deviation towards the north. The Fungi generally 
bend towards the light, like Phanerogamous plants; and the au- 
thor records an experiment made by him with Claviceps purpurea 
growing on ergotized wheat, which constantly turned its stem at an 
angle of about 45°, in order to direct its head towards the light ; so 
that, when it had been moved two or three times, its suem had be- 
come entirely sinuous. But this motion could not have influenced 
the fungi no.iced by the author, as no ght could penetrate the 
space in which they grew; and, moreover, they had directed them- 
selves from the south or sunny side towards the obscurity of the 
north. Their stems, also, were quite rectilinear. 

The most remarkable fact noticed by the author is the following. 
From the exceptional position in which these fungi were developed, 
their direction was, of course, reversed, and the hoods had their free 
and naked surface, which is usually superior, tirned towards the 
ground, whilst their hymenial surface, with its lamellae, was turned 


388 Miscellaneous. 


upwards. This reversed position was maintained throughout the 
young state of the plants so long as the hood, then in the form of a 
thimble, had its hymenial lamellz closely applied to the upper part 
of the stem; but as soon as the hood began to spread out and re- 
move its lamell# from contact with the stem, the latter bent upwards 
at a distance of about five millims. from its extremity, in such a 
manner as to elevate the hood and turn the lamelle downwards. 
This bending was not a gradual curvature, but an actual elbow, 
forming a right (or even a slightly acute) angle, having for its sides 
the two very unequal portions of the stem, both of which were recti- 
linear. This turning had taken place upon all the individuals, 
about fifty in number, which had attained the adult state. The 
author confesses himself unable to suggest any satisfactory explana- 
tion of it. It is evident that the erection of the apex of the stem, 
which turned the hood over, must have been produced by the sudden 
elongation of the cellular tissue on one side of the stem to a much 
greater extent than that on the opposite side; but, as the author 
remarks, this is merely stating the crude fact, not explaining it. 
He says that if we chose ‘‘to employ a word now much in vogue,” 
we might say that the portion of tissue which was active in this 
erection acquired at the proper moment a tension superior to the 
tissue occupying the opposite side. But this would be merely to 
substitute a word having a scientific appearance for more common- 
place expressions, and it would still remain to be explained how 
this unilateral excess of elongation, or this “local tension,” could 
have been produced in an organ in which nothing was predis- 
posed for it, and simply because the exceptional position of the 
fungus had reversed the natural direction of its organs. That this 
change of direction is not isolated or accidental, has been proved by 
the author by experiments on some plants of Claviceps purpurea 
grown in a reversed position, which, on approaching maturity, 
turned up their stalks by describing a curve forming a larger or 
smaller portion of a circle, after which the extremities bearing the 
heads continued to grow upwards. This fact, the author thinks, is 
still more unfavourable to the theory of the influence of gravity 
upon the direction of growth of Fungi than even the phenomena 
observed by him in the Agaric; for the Claviceps has no hymenial 
lamelle to exhibit the hypothetical tendency to yielding to the ac- 
tion of gravity, its head being nearly globular and symmetrical in 
all its parts—Comptes Rendus, April 11, 1870, tome lxx. pp. 776- 
782. 


Deep-sea Dredging in the Adriatic. 


We understand that Prof. Oscar Schmidt of Gratz will publish in 
June an account of the Sponges of the Atlantic, founded chiefly on 
the collections made by Mr. Pourtales and the Scandinavian zoolo- 
gists, and that he will proceed this summer to various parts of the 
Adriatic to make deep-sea dredgings, in the steamer ‘Triest,’ of the 
Imperial Austrian navy.—J. E. Gray. 


THE ANNALS 


AND 


MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 


[FOURTH SERIES. | 


No. 30. JUNE 1870. 


XLIV.—On Haliphysema ramulosa (Bowerbank) and the 
Sponge-spicules of Polytrema. By H. J. Carrer, F.R.S. 
&e. 


In the last Number of the ‘ Annals,’ p. 320, I have suggested 
that Dr. Bowerbank’s Haliphysema ramulosa might be a 
branched form of Squamulina scopula, and then have sub- 
mitted the question whether there might not be some connexion 
between the arborescent form of Polytrema and H. ramulosa, 
on account of the presence of sponge-spicules, stated by Dr. 
Carpenter (Introduct. Study of Foraminifera, p. 236) to appa- 
rently radiate from the extremities of the former. 

Iam now, through the kindness of my friends Dr. J. E. 
Gray and Dr. Carpenter respectively, enabled to answer these 
questions definitively. 

In the first place, Prof. Oscar Schmidt has transmitted to 
Dr. Gray, for the British Museum, among many others, two 
slides bearing respectively specimens of Haliphysema Tuma- 
nowiczi and H. ramulosa (Bowerbank), Florida; and in the 
spiculiferous character of the extremities they closely resemble 
Squamulina scopula; but, in the absence of the ‘* pedestal,” 
and other points, it is not clear to me that they are identical 
in species with S. scopula and S. varians respectively. 

Still, that there can be no doubt of the existence of a di- 
chotomously branched species of the same kind of organism as 
S. scopula, Prof. Schmidt’s mounted specimen testifies. Be- 
sides, this able naturalist promises, in a forthcoming notice, 
which is already printed, certain observations on the subject, 
showing that neither Haliphysema Tumanowiczi? nor H. ra- 
mulosa can be sponges, although Prof. Schmidt is not at pre- 
sent prepared to state exactly what the real nature of these 
organisms may be. 

Thus the branched form of Haliphysema (Bowerbank) is 
Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 4. Vol. v. 27 


390 Mr. H. J. Carter on Haliphysema ramulosa, 


definitively shown to be no more a sponge than the simple or 
unbranched form, and will probably prove hereafter to be no- 
thing more than a branched form of Squamulina scopula, as 
I at first suggested. 

Although Prof. Schmidt had introduced the two species, and 
the figure of H. Tumanowicziz, in his excellent work on the 
Adriatic Sponges, on the authority of Dr. Bowerbank, it is 
not only fair to observe, but equally significant, that it will not 
be found in Dr. Gray’s proposed “ Arrangement of Sponges ” 
(Proc. Zool. Soc. May 9, 1867). Dr. Gray doubted its asserted 
nature. 

In the second instance, I have been provided by Dr. Car- 
penter with specimens of Polytrema, both simple and “ arbores- 
cent,” together with portions of the spiculiferous structure 
accompanying them, chiefly for examination of the latter; and 
the result of this I have found to be that, although Polytrema 
widely differs from Squamulina scopula and S. varians in its 
foraminiferous characters, still the heterogeneous mixture of 
sponge-spicules which enters more or less into the composition 
of their tests respectively appears to me to be the same. 

While, however, the basis of the test in S. scopula and S. 
varians consists of an agglomeration of siliceous sand, that of 
Polytrema consists of calcareous matter secreted by the animal 
itself; and so far the basis-material of the tests differs; but 
sponge-spicules are alike present in that of Polytrema, as 
Schultze has already stated (ap. Prof. Allman, last No. of 
‘Annals,’ p. 373), and in that of Sguamulina scopula &e. 

The spicules differ, of course, with the kinds of sponges 
growing in the locality from which they are supplied; and 
hence we do not expect to find exactly the same kinds of spi- 
cules in the Haliphysema from the Gulf of Florida that we 
find in Squamulina scopula of the British coasts ; nor do we 
expect to find the same kinds of spicules in the specimens of 
Polytrema which were brought from the tropics by Mr. Denis 
Macdonald to Dr. Carpenter. 

Thus in specimens of the spiculiferous structure taken from 
the latter, I have observed the pin-like, spinous, and sinuous 
spicules of Cliona northumbrica, fragments of the heads and 
shafts of very large trifid spicules of a G'eodia (?), together with 
a very preponderating number of the minute stellate spicules, 
and a few large ones like those of Tethea lyncurdum, a 
‘‘ dichotomo-patento-ternate” spicule of Dactylocalyx Bower- 
bankii, just like that figured in plate 2. fig. 53 of Bowerbank’s 
‘ Brit. Sponges,’ and many other kinds, mixed together, but 
too numerous to mention individually. 

In the fragments of spiculiferous structure given me for 


and the Sponge-spicules of Polytrema. 391 


examination by Dr. Carpenter, the above heterogeneous assem- 
blage is found the minute stellate and smooth pin-like spi- 
cules preponderating. On the other hand, in and about some 
specimens of Polytrema on a crab-claw, which Dr. Carpenter 
also gave me, the preponderating spicule is club-shaped spi- 
nous, with anchorate spicules (of the kind mentioned hereafter), 
with the points, and not the heads, of the former projecting 
outwards—evidencing by this and their preponderance that 
the sponges which these two combinations respectively repre- 
sent grew on the Polytrema accidentally, and not parasitically. 

Of course, if Polytrema is in the habit of drawing to itself 
sponge-spicules, which, from the vast number of sponges always 
growing, dying, and disintegrating at the bottom of the sea, 
must be almost as plentiful as grains of sand there, it is not 
strange that the spicules which to-day are matted among its 
pseudopodia on its surface should, in a few days after, be found 
in the interior of its calcareous structure ; and hence the pre- 
sence more or less of sponge-spicules throughout the latter 
may be explained. Moreover, in addition to sponge-spicules, 
there are frustules of Diatomacez, fragments of minute Crus- 
tacea, and the minute, clathrous, calcareous bodies of the 
fleshy parts of Echinodermata,—in short, just as in Squamu- 
lina, almost any thing and every thing of this kind that may 
pass in its way. At the same time, the amount of spicules 
and their variety will vary in the structure of the test of Poly- 
trema with the amount of sponges and their variety in the 
locality in which it may grow; and hence at one time there 
may be an excess and at another a comparative deficiency of 
spicules*. 

Lastly, as regards the arborescent form of Polytrema, com- 
pared with Schmidt's Haliphysema ramulosa from Florida, 
the former is massive, extending here and there into short 
projections which may be termed pseudo-branches, while 
Schmidt’s specimen is slender, dendritic, and dichotomously 
branched three times. For this species Schmidt has proposed, 
on his slide, the name of “‘ Lophalia affinis,” instead of “ Hali- 
physema.” 

It seems also desirable that the spicules preponderating so 
excessively beyond all others on the specimens of Polytrema 
should be particularized, as they evidently belong to two dis- 
tinct sponges, hitherto, apparently, undescribed. 

That in the fragments taken from Mr. Macdonald’s speci- 
mens of Polytrema by Dr. Carpenter presents a combination 


* See also. Gray on Polytrema in Proc. Zool. Soc. 1858, p. 270, and 
Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. 1858, vol. ii. p. 886; Max Schultze, Ann. & Mag. 
Nat. Hist. 1863, vol. xii. p. 409, and Gray, tbid. 1864, vol. xiii. p. 111. 


27* 


392 Prof. E. P. Wright on a Collection 


of smooth pin-like spicules with ovate heads, mixed up plen- 
tifully with a mass of minute stellate spicules, each consisting 
of a globular body more or less covered with a variable num- 
ber of radiating spines chiefly spinulous at the extremities, 
together with a few larger ones with smooth conical spines 
like that figured by Dr. Bowerbank (Brit. Sponges, vol. i. pl. vi. 
fiz. 164) from “ Tethea Ingalli, MS.,” but not the same. This 
combination, together with the cartilaginous nature of the 
fragments, indicates a close alliance to Tethea lyncurium. 

That of the other kind, which grows in a film over the spe- 
cimens of Polytrema on the crab-claw, presents the following 
combination, viz.:—1, a club-shaped, thickly spmous spicule 
with the spines recurved or inclined towards the head; 2, a 
much longer, thin, smooth, cylindrical spicule, with abruptly 
pointed ends, one of which is occasionally oblong-capitate ; 
and, 8, an anchorate spicule, tridentate, webbed, and ‘ angu- 
lated,” like that figured by Dr. Bowerbank (Brit. Spong. pl. vi. 
f. 143) as characteristic of Spongia plumosa, Montagu. This, 
again, is evidently one of Dr. Gray’s Esperiade (op. et loc. 
cit.). 


XLV.—WNotes on a Collection of Spiders made in Sicily in the 
Spring of 1868. By EK. Percevant Wricut, M.D., I’.1.8., 
Professor of Botany, Trimity College, Dublin. With a List 
of the Species, and Descriptions of some new Species and of 
a new Genus, by JOHN BLACKWALL, F.L.S. 


[Plate VIII.] 


CrossinG Mont Cenis on the last day of April 1868, I arrived 
in Florence on the evening of the Ist of May, and, proceeding 
vid Lucca, Leghorn, and Rome, reached Naples about the 10th 
of May. Here I joined my kind friend A. H. Haliday, A.M., 
who had invited me to join him in a month’s ramble upon the 
slopes of Etna. We had to wait until the 15th for Florio’s 
steamer to Messina; but, the weather being very fine, the 
time was passed by us most pleasantly in wandering, now on 
the sides of Vesuvius (which at the time was in full eruption, 
belching forth steam mingled with stones, and ejecting more 
than one stream of brightly glowing lava), and again by the 
Lucrine Lake and at Baie. Arriving in Sicily, we spent one 
week collecting at and in the immediate neighbourhood of Mes- 
sina, and a little more than a fortnight on the slopes of Etna. 
Catania was our headquarters; but a week was spent at 
Nicolosi, and it was here that the collection of spiders which 


of Sicilian Spiders. 393 


is described in the following pages by my friend Mr. Blackwall 
was made. Mr. Blackwall had already named for me a col- 
lection of spiders made at his request in the olive- and vine- 
yards about San Concordio, near Lucca; and I thought it would 
be a matter of interest to find out what resemblance there might 
be between the Araneid faune of two places so distant from 
each other, and so unlike in their geological formation—the one 
consisting chiefly of limestone, the other of volcanic débris. My 
chief collecting-ground was in the immediate neighbourhood of 
Nicolosi, at an elevation of about 3000 feet. The inner slopes 
of the extinct craters of Monti Rossi and the Val del Bove also 
furnished good collecting-ground. No species were met with 
out of the woody region. I was obliged to place the collection 
of spiders in the same bottle with a collection of Coleoptera ; 
and this, unfortunately, got broken on the way to Malta; so 
that several specimens were destroyed, and many of those 
saved were partly spoiled. Mr. Blackwall made out twenty- 
seven species, of which seven appear to him new, and one 
forms the type of a new genus. 

Sphasus ttalicus, Walck., was as common here as at Lucca. 
Salticus intentus, Blackw., described as new from specimens 
taken at Lucca, and S. nitens, also a Lucca species, were not 
uncommon. Thomisus amenus, Blackw., was also originally 
described from a Lucca specimen. The following species were 
found in Sicily and not at Lucca :—Lycosa agretyca, Walck., 
L. andrenivora, Walck., L. albocincta, n. sp., Salticus petilus, 
n.sp., Thomisus diversus, n. sp., Philodromus lepidus, n. sp., 
Clubiona erratica, Walck., Hresus Walckenaertius, Walck., 
Theridion parvulum, n. sp. (the absence of species of this 
genus was remarkable), Ctenophora monticola, gen. et sp. nov., 
Linyphia polita, n.sp., Epeira apoclisa, Walck., EH. cucurbi- 
tina, Walck. 

I cannot conclude these brief notes on the locality in which 
these spiders were collected without thanking Mr. Blackwall 
for the kindness he has ever shown to me and for the great 
assistance he has always given to me in naming the spi- 
ders which I have from time to time (since 1853) col- 
lected. The collection of Araneidze made in the Seychelles 
is at present under examination by Mr. Blackwall, and con- 
tains, he informs me, many very interesting forms, most of 
them quite giants when compared even with the largest 
European species. 


394 Mr. J. Blackwall on Sicilian Spiders. 


List and Descriptions of Species. By JouN BLACKWALL, F.L.S. 


Tribe Octonoculina. 
Family Lycosip2. 
Genus Lycosa, Latr. 


Lycosa agretyca. 


Lycosa agretyca, Walck., Hist. Nat. des Insect. Apt. tom. i. p. 308; 
Blackw., Spiders of Great Britain and Ireland, p. 17, pl. 1. fig. 2. 

ruricola, Latr., Gen. Crust. et Insect. tom. i. p. 120; Sund., Vet. 
Akad. Handl. 1882, p. 192. 

Trochosa trabalis, Koch, Die Arachn. Band xiv. p. 141, tab. 492. figs. 1871- 
1374, 


Lycosa andrenivora. 


Lycosa andrenivora, Walck., Hist. Nat. des Insect. Apt. tom. 1. p. 315 ; 
Blackw., Spiders of Great Britain and Ireland, p. 20, pl. 1. fig. 4. 


Lycosa albocincta, n. sp. Pl. VIII. fig. 1. 


Length of the male ;3; of an inch; length of the cephalo- 
thorax 4, breadth +; breadth of the abdomen +35; length of a 
posterior leg +; length of a leg of the third pair 3. 

The eyes, which are unequal in size, are disposed in front 
and on the sides of the anterior part of the cephalothorax ; 
four, much smaller than the rest, form a transverse row im- 
mediately above the frontal margin, the two intermediate ones 
being rather larger than the lateral ones of the same row ; the 
other four describe a trapezoid, the two anterior ones, which 
are the largest of the eight, forming its shortest side. The ce- 
phalothorax is long, compressed before, depressed and rounded 
on the sides and at the base, sparingly clothed with hairs, and 
of a dark-brown colour, with a broad yellowish-grey band ex- 
tending along the middle, and narrow white lateral margins. 
The falces are long, powerful, subconical, and vertical ; the 
maxille are straight, and increase in breadth from the base to 
the extremity, which is rounded; the lip is somewhat qua- 
drate, being rather broader at the base than at the apex. These 
parts have a reddish-brown colour, the maxille and apex of 
the lip being much the palest. The sternum has a short oval 
form ; it is convex, glossy, provided with long, upright, black 
hairs, which are most numerous on its sides, and has a very 
dark-brown hue. The legs are long, provided with hairs and 
sessile spines, and are of a red-brown colour, the femora being 
much the darkest; the fourth pair is the longest, then the 
is of a dark-brown colour, and there are several obscure pale- 


Mr. J. Blackwall on Sicilian Spiders. 395 


first, and the third pair is the shortest; each tarsus is termi- 
nated by three claws; the two superior ones are curved and 
pectinated, and the small inferior one is inflected near its base. 
The palpi fesemble the legs in colour; the radial is stronger 
than the cubital joint, and the digital joint, which is of an ob- 
long-oval form pointed at the extremity, and of a dark-brown 
hue, is convex and hairy externally, concave within, com- 
prising the palpal organs, which are highly developed, promi- 
nent, complex in structure, and of a dark and a light red-brown 
colours intermixed. The abdomen is oviform, clothed with 
adpressed hairs, convex above, and projects over the base of 
the cephalothorax ; it is of a very dark-brown hue, and is 
encompassed by a broad band of white hairs; a similar band, 
extending along the middle of the upper part, comprises a 
dark-brown fusiform mark; two oval white spots, placed 
transversely, occur on the under part, immediately below the 
branchial opercula. 


Genus Spuasus, Walck. 


Sphasus ttalicus. 


Sphasus italicus, Walck., Hist. Nat. des Insect. Apt. tom. i. p. 374; 
Blackw., Journal of the Linnean Society, Zoology, vol. x. p. 409. 
gentilis, Koch, Die Arachn. Band v. p. 97, tab. 170. fig. 404. 


Family SALTICIDA. 
Genus SALticus, Latr. 


Salticus intentus. 


Salticus intentus, Blackw., Journal of the Linnean Society, Zoology, vol. x. 
p. 413, tab. 15. fig. 5. 


Salticus petilus,n.sp. Pl. VIII. fig. 2. 


Length of the male 53; of an inch; length of the cephalo- 
thorax +, breadth +5; breadth of the abdomen +';; length of 
an anterior leg 7; length of a leg of the third pair 4. 

The minute intermediate eye of each lateral row is nearly 
equidistant from the eyes constituting its extremities. The 
cephalothorax is long and somewhat quadrilateral, with a 
shallow depression behind the posterior pair of eyes ; it slopes 
abruptly downwards at the base, projects a little beyond the 
falces in front, is clothed with short yellowish hairs, and is of 
a dark-brown colour. The falces are small, subconical, and 
armed with a few teeth on the inner surface; the maxille are 
enlarged and somewhat divergent at the extremity; and the 
lip and sternum are oval. These parts are of a dark-brown 
colour, the extremity of the maxillee and the apex of the lip 


396 Mr. J. Blackwall on Sicilian Spiders. 


having a tinge of red. The legs are hairy and robust, espe- 
cially those of the first pair, which are provided with a few 
spines on the inferior surface of the metatarsi and tarsi; they 
are of a dark-brown hue tinged with red, the tibize, metatarsi, 
and tarsi of the second, third, and fourth pairs being much 
the palest ; the first pair is the longest, then the fourth, and 
the second and third pairs, which are the shortest, are nearly 
equal in length; each tarsus is terminated by two curved 
claws, below which there is a small scopula. The palpi are 
long and resemble the legs in colour; the humeral joint is 
curved downwards; the radial is much smaller than the cu- 
bital joint, and projects an obtuse apophysis from its extremity 
on the outer side, which is directed forwards ; the digital joint 
has a short oval form and brown hue; it is convex and hairy 
externally, concave within, comprising the palpal organs, 
which are moderately developed, not very complex in struc- 
ture, prominent, particularly at the base, and of a brown co- 
lour faintly tinged with red. The abdomen is long, subcylin- 
drical, tapering slightly to the spinners, and is clothed with 
adpressed hairs; it is of a brown colour, the under part being 
the palest, and has a large spot of a dull-yellowish hue above 
the coccyx. 
Salticus nitens. 


Salticus nitens, Blackw., Journ. Linn. Soc., Zoology, vol. x. p. 415. 
Heliophanus nitens, Koch, Die Arachn. Band xiv. p. 63, tab, 477. fig. 1819. 


Family THOMISID&. 
Genus THomisus, Walck. 
Thomisus diversus,n.sp. Pl. VIII. fig. 3. 


Length of the female 4 of an inch; length of the cephalo- 
thorax +5, breadth +; breadth of the abdomen -3,; length of 
a leg of the second pair =3,; length of a leg of the third pair 4. 

The cephalothorax is slightly compressed before, truncated 
in front, rounded on the sides, abruptly depressed at the base, 
moderately convex, glossy, with a few black bristles distri- 
buted over its surface, and a row directed forwards from its 
anterior margin; it is of a dark-brown colour mottled with 
yellowish-white ; a whitish line passes transversely between 
the two rows of eyes, and a broad yellowish-white band, whose 
anterior extremity comprises several longitudinal brown streaks, 
extends along the middle ; it becomes contracted at the com- 
mencement of the posterior slope, and then gradually increases 
in breadth to the base. The eyes are disposed on the anterior 
part of the cephalothorax in two transverse curved rows form- 
ing a crescent whose convexity is directed forwards; the four 


M. J. Blackwall on Sicilian Spiders. 397 


intermediate eyes describe a square ; and the eyes of each la- 
teral pair are seated obliquely on a tubercle, the anterior ones 
being the largest of the eight. The falces are short, strong, 
cuneiform, and vertical ; the maxille are convex near the base, 
pointed at the extremity, and inclined towards the lip; and 
the sternum is heart-shaped. These parts are of a yellowish- 
white colour, the base of the falces, in front, and the base and 
sides of the maxille being tinged with brown; the sides of 
the sternum are marked with black spots, and a short streak 
of the same hue is directed forwards from its posterior extre- 
mity. The lip is triangular, and has a dark-brown hue, the 
median line and apex being the palest. The legs are provided 
with hairs and spines, two parallel rows of the latter occurring 
on the inferior surface of the tibiz and metatarsi of the first 
and second pairs, which are much longer and more robust than 
the third and fourth pairs; the second pair slightly surpasses 
the first, and the third pair is the shortest; each tarsus is ter- 
minated by two curved, pectinated claws; these limbs have a 
duil-yellowish hue freckled with black on the femora and 
tibie ; the third and fourth pairs are the palest, and are marked 
with a few conspicuous black spots on the upper part and 
sides. The palpi are short, and have a small curved claw at 
their extremity; they resemble the legs in colour, but are 
without black marks. The abdomen is somewhat oviform, 
broader at the posterior than at the anterior extremity, mode- 
rately convex above, and projects a little over the base of the 
cephalothorax ; the sides are corrugated; and the upper part, 
on which a few upright black bristles are distributed, has a 
strongly dentated band extending along the middle about two- 
thirds of its length; it is bordered laterally by an irregular 
brownish-black band, and terminated by a slightly curved, 
transverse, black bar, whose convexity is directed forwards ; 
the dentated median band comprises five small, pale-brown, 
circular depressions ; the three anterior ones form an angle 
whose vertex is directed forwards, and the other two are situ- 
ated parallel to its base; its colour, and that of the upper part 
of the sides and a space above the coccyx, is yellowish white, 
but in aged individuals dull yellow; the lower region of the 
sides and the under part have a rather darker hue, being 
freckled with black: the sexual organs are small, with a 
septum in the middle, and of a red-brown colour, that of the 
branchial opercula being brown. 


Thomisus rotundatus. 
Thomisus rotundatus, Walck., Hist. Nat. des Insect. ane tom. i. p. 500; 
Blackw., Journ. of the Linn. Soc., Zoology, vol. x. p. 415. 
globosus, Hahn, Die Arachn. Band i. p. 34, tab. 9. fig. 28. 


398 Mr. J. Blackwall on Sicilian Spiders. 


Thomisus citreus. 


Thomisus citreus, Walck., Hist. Nat. des Insect. Apt. tom. i. p. 526; 

Latr., Gen. Crust. et Insect. tom. i. p. 111; Hahn, Die Arachn. Band i, 

. 42, tab. 2. fig. 32; Sund., Vet. Akad. Handl. 1852, p. 219; Blackw., 
Binders of Great Britain and Ireland, p. 88, pl. 4. fig. 53. 
—— dauct, Hahn, Die Arachn. Band i. p. 33, tab. 9. fig. 27. 

calycinus, Koch, Die Arachn. Band iy. p. 53, tab. 124. figs. 288, 284. 


Thomisus amenus. 


Thomisus amenus, Blackw., Journal of the Linnean Soc., Zoology, vol. x. 
p. 415, tab. 16, fig. 7. 


Thomisus hirtus. 


Thomisus hirtus, Koch, Die Arachn. Band iv. p. 42, tab. 120. figs. 275, 276 ; 
Blackw., Journal of the Linn. Soc., Zoology, vol. x. p. 420. 


Thomisus abbreviatus. 


Thomisus abbreviatus, Walck., Hist. Nat. des Insect. Apt. tom. i. p. 516; 
Blackw., Spiders of Gt. Britain and Ireland, p. 90, pl. 4. fig. 54; Blackw., 
Journ. of the Linn. Soc., Zoology, vol. x. p. 420. 

—— diadema, Hahn, Die Arachn. Band i. p. 49, tab. 13, fig. 837; Koch, 
Die Arachn. Band iv. p. 51, tab. 123, figs. 281, 282. 


Genus Puitopromus, Walck. 
Philodromus lepidus, n. sp. Pl. VIII. fig. 4. 


Length of the female + of an inch; length of the cephalo- 
thorax ;!;, breadth 3; breadth of the abdomen +45; length of 
a leg of the second pair 3; length of a leg of the third 

air 3. 
d The eyes, which are black, are disposed on the anterior 
part of the cephalothorax in two curved transverse rows form- 
ing a crescent whose convexity is directed forwards ; the pos- 
terior row is much the longer, and the intermediate eyes of the 
anterior row are rather the largest of the eight. The cephalo- 
thorax is short, broad, compressed before, truncated in front, 
and has a small pointed process at each extremity of its frontal 
margin ; it is rounded on the sides, somewhat depressed, hairy, 
and of a yellowish-white colour; a dark-brown band extends 
along each side, above the lateral margin, to its base; and 
there is a pale-brown streak below the lateral eyes. The 
falces are subconical, somewhat inclined towards the sternum, 
and have a brownish-yellow hue. The maxille are short, 
convex near the base, obliquely truncated at the extremity, on 
the outer side, and strongly inclined towards the lip, which is 
somewhat quadrate, being broader at the base than at the 
apex ; and the sternum is heart-shaped. These parts have a 
yellowish-white hue; the base of the maxille and of the lip 


Mr. J. Blackwall on Sicilian Spiders. 399 


brown spots on the lateral margins of the sternum. The legs 
are long, provided with hairs and spines, and of a brownish- 
yellow colour, with pale-brown annuli; the second pair is the 
longest, then the first, and the third pair is the shortest ; each 
tarsus is terminated by two curved, minutely pectinated claws, 
and has a scopula on its inferior surface. ‘The palpi resemble 
the legs in colour. The abdomen is oviform, broadest in the 
middle, pointed at the spinners, clothed with short, adpressed, 
yellowish hairs, convex above, and projects a little over the 
base of the cephalothorax ; it 1s of a yellowish-white colour ; 
a dark-brown fusiform band extends from the anterior extre- 
mity along the middle of the upper part nearly half of its 
length, from a slightly projecting point on each side of which 
a brown line, enlarged at its extremity, passes obliquely back- 
wards and downwards ; to this band succeed several curved 
dark-brown lines, which rapidly decrease in length, are some- 
what enlarged at their extremities, and are followed by a line 
of the same hue, which terminates in a point at the coccyx ; 
there are a few irregular dark-brown spots on the sides; and a 
streak of a paler brown passes obliquely upwards and out- 
wards from each side of the coceyx. The sexual organs are 
moderately developed, with a small, pale, triangular process 
directed backwards from their anterior margin, and are of a 
reddish-brown colour, that of the branchial opercula being 
ets brown, with the exception of the inner margin, which is 
whitish. 


Family Drassip@&. 
Genus CLuBIona, Latr. 


Clubiona erratica. 


Clubiona erratica, Walck., Hist. Nat. des Insect. Apt. tom. i. p. 602 
Blackw., Spiders of Gt. Britain and Ireland, p. 135, pl. 8. fig. 86. 

Bolyphantes equestris, Koch, Uebers. des Arachn. Syst. erstes Heft, p. 9. 

Cheiracanthium carnifex, Koch, Die Arachn. Band vi. p. 14, tab. 184. figs. 
438, 439, 


Family CINIFLONID&. 
Genus Eresus, Walck. 


Eresus Walckenaerius. 


Eresus Walckenaerius, Walck., Hist. Nat. des Insect. Apt. tom. i. p. 398. 
ctenizoides, Koch, Die Arachn. Band iii. p. 19, tab. 80. fig. 176. 
— luridus, Koch, Die Arachn. Band iii. p. 20, tab. 80. fig. 177. 


The only specimen of this species contained in the collec- 
tion was an immature female. 


400 Mr. J. Blackwall on Stcdlian Spiders. 


Family THERIDIIDZ. 
Genus THERIDION, Walck. 


Theridion pulchellum. 


Theridion pulchellum, Walck., Hist. Nat. des Insect. Apt. tom. ii. p. 311; 
Blackw., Spiders of Gt. Britain & Ireland, p. 191, pl. 14. fig. 122. 

Theridium ‘vittatum, Koch, Die Arachn. Band iii. p. 65, rah 94. fig. 217 ; 
Koch, Die Arachn. Band iv. p- 118, tab. 141. fig. 326. 


Theridion parvulum, n. sp. Pl. VIII. fig. 5 


Length of the male ~ of an inch; length of the cephalo- 
thorax ='5, breadth j-; breadth of the abdomen ,'>; length of 
an anterior leg +; length of a leg of the third pair 75 

The abdomen is oviform, convex above, projects over the 
base of the cephalothorax, and is of a yellowish-white colour ; 
a large, dentated, black band, that tapers to the spimners, and 
is mottled anteriorly with white, extends along the middle of 
the upper part; on the under part there is a black spot im- 
mediately before the spinners; and a bar of the same hue 
passes transversely behind the branchial opercula, which are 
of a dark-brown colour. The cephalothorax is oval, convex, 
glossy, with a small black indentation in the median line of 
the posterior region, and is of a pale-brown colour. The eyes 
are disposed on the anterior part of the cephalothorax in two 
transverse rows; the four intermediate ones form a square, 
the two anterior ones, which are seated on a protuberance, 
being the largest and darkest-coloured of the eight; the eyes 
of each lateral pair are placed obliquely on a minute tubercle, 
and are contiguous. The falces are small, conical, and verti- 
cal; the maxille are obliquely truncated at the extremity, on 
the outer side, and inclined towards the lip, which is trian- 
gular; and the sternum is heart-shaped and glossy; the legs 
are slender; the first pair is the longest, then the fourth, and 
the third pair is the shortest; each tarsus is terminated by 
three claws; the two superior ones are curved and pectinated, 
and the inferior one is inflected near its base. These parts are 
of a brownish-yellow colour, the base of the lip being the 
darkest, and the legs the palest. The palpi are short, and 
resemble the legs in colour; the radial is smaller than the 
cubital joint, and is somewhat produced on the outer side; the 
digital joint is oval, convex and hairy externally, concave 
within, comprising the palpal organs, which are highly deve- 
loped and complex in structure ; they are encircled by a black 
filiform spine, and have a yellow ish-brown hue. The convex 
sides of the digital joints are directed towards each other. 


Mr. J. Blackwall on Sicilian Spiders. 401 


Family CTENOPHORID. ° 


Two spiders, belonging to the genera Ctenophora and Galena, 
at present constitute the family Ctenophoride ; they are espe- 
cially characterized by a conspicuous comb-like appendage, 
consisting of a series of curved spines of various lengths sym- 
metrically arranged, which is situated on the anterior side of 
each tibia and metatarsus of the first and second pairs of legs. 
One of these spiders is indigenous to Sicily, and the other to 
Rio Janeiro; but their habits and economy have not yet been 
ascertained. 


Genus CrenopHora, Blackw. 


Eyes disposed on the anterior part of the cephalothorax in 
two transverse rows; the four intermediate ones nearly form a 
square, the two anterior ones, which are seated on a protube- 
rance and are wider apart than the posterior ones, being the 
largest of the eight; the eyes of each lateral pair are placed 
obliquely on a small tubercle, and are contiguous. 

Falces long, powerful, vertical, united at the base, and 
armed with a short curved fang and a few small teeth at the 
extremity. 

Mazxille slender, pointed at the extremity, and strongly in- 
clined towards the lip. 

Ip semicircular. 

Legs very long and slender, especially those of the first and 
second pairs, and provided with spines; on the anterior side 
of the tibize and metatarsi of the first and second pairs there is 
a series of long, prominent, slightly curved spines ; and in each 
of the wide intervals by which they are separated a row of 
shorter curved spines is situated, which gradually increase in 
length as they extend down the joints ; the first pair of legs is 
much the longest, then the second, and the third pair is the 
shortest. 

Ctenophora monticola, n. sp. Pl. VIII. fig. 6. 


Length of the female + of an inch; length of the cephalo- 
thorax +5, breadth ~,; breadth of the abdomen -4,; length of 
an anterior leg £; length of a leg of the third pair 4. 

The legs have a brownish-yellow hue, and are marked with 
soot-coloured spots and annuli; each tarsus is terminated b 
three claws; the two superior ones are curved and pectinated, 
and the inferior one is inflected near its base. The palpi are 
slender, rather paler than the legs, with a soot-coloured spot 
at the base of the radial joint, on the under side, and an an- 
nulus of the same hue at the base of the long digital joint, 


402 Mr. J. Blackwall on Sicilian Spiders. 


which has a small, curved, pectinated claw at its pointed ex- 
tremity. The cephalothorax is long, compressed before, 
rounded on the sides, convex, glossy, depressed at the anterior 
part and at the base, with an indentation in the median line of 
the posterior region, and is of a reddish-brown colour ; a large 
vase-shaped mark, bounded by an irregular black line, and 
projecting from its posterior extremity a small bifid mark of 
the same hue, which terminates in the median indentation, 
extends from the eyes along the middle, and comprises some 
irregular brown lines and yellowish-white spots, a few pale 
hairs, which spring from prominent, pointed, black bases, 
being distributed over its surface; there are several black 
spots on the sides, and a short streak of the same hue on the 
frontal margin. The falces are of a reddish-brown colour, the 
extremity being the reddest; they have a few black spots 
near their base, a large oblong one near the middle of the 
inner side, and a yet larger one underneath of the same hue. 
The sternum is heart-shaped, and, with the maxille and lip, 
has a brownish-yellow hue, the base of the lip being much 
the darkest. The abdomen is short, somewhat oviform, con- 
vex above, and projects over the base of the cephalothorax ; 
it has a dull-yellow hue, and is marked with black streaks and 
spots, which probably describe a regular figure; but in the 
specimen from which the description was made it was so dis- 
figured that the design formed by the distribution of its 
colours could not be clearly traced. The sexual organs are 
well developed, have a narrow black margin, and a brownish- 
yellow septum in the middle, which is enlarged at its posterior 
extremity. 

The male of this species is at present unknown. 

This interesting spider, on which I have founded the genus 
Ctenophora, was captured by Professor K. Perceval Wright 
on one of the slopes of Etna. By the relative and absolute 
length of its legs, by the remarkable armature of the first and 
second pairs, and by the disposition and relative size of its 
eyes it makes a near approximation to the only species at 
present known belonging to the genus Galena {Galena zonata, 
Koch, Die Arachn. Band xii. p. 105, tab. 419. fig. 1032; 
Blackw., Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. ser. 3. vol. xi. p. 39), which 
Koch has placed in the family EHpeiride. Both species, by 
the structure of their maxille (and in this particular they 
present a marked difference) are closely allied to the Theri- 
diide ; and I apprehend that the proper position of the family 
Ctenophoride, in which I include them, is intermediate be- 
tween the Hpetride and the Theridiide. 


Mr. J. Blackwall on Sicilian Spiders. 403 


Family LInyPHIIDA. 
Genus Linypui, Latr. 
Linyphia polita, n. sp. Pl. VIII. fig. 7. 


Length of the female 3; of an inch; length of the cephalo- 
thorax ;';, breadth J;; breadth of the abdomen +, ; length of 
an anterior leg 4; length of a leg of the third pair 4. 

The abdomen is ovitorm, convex above, projects a little over 
the base of the cephalothorax, and slopes abruptly downwards 
at its extremity ; the upper part is of a pale yellowish-white 
colour reticulated with brown lines; a black band, which 
extends from its base along the middle, has its posterior half 
broken into spots, the largest of which has a triangular form, 
and is situated at the commencement of the posterior slope; a 
slightly curved brown band passes along the anterior half of 
the upper part of each side ; and the inferior region of the sides 
and the entire under part have a brownish-black hue; the 
sexual organs are well developed, slightly prominent, and of 
a reddish-brown colour. The eyes are disposed on the ante- 
rior part of the cephalothorax in two transverse rows ; the four 
intermediate ones describe a trapezoid whose anterior side is 
much the shortest, and the two posterior ones are the largest 
of the eight; the eyes of each lateral pair are seated obliquely 
on a small tubercle, and are contiguous. The cephalothorax 
is somewhat compressed before, rounded in front and on the 
sides, convex, glossy, and of a reddish-brown colour, the sides 
and base being much the darkest. The falces are long, 
powerful, conical, vertical, slightly divergent at the extre- 
mity, armed with teeth on the inner surface, and a red-brown 
hue. The maxille are straight, the exterior angle at their 
extremity is curvilinear, and they are of a reddish-yellow 
colour. The lip is semicircular; and the sternum is heart- 
shaped. These parts are of a dark-brown colour, the apex of 
the former and the median line of the latter being the palest. 
The legs are long, provided with a few fine spines, and are of 
a dull-yellowish hue; the first pair is the longest, then the 
second, and the third pair is the shortest ; each tarsus is ter- 
minated by three claws; the two superior ones are curved and 
minutely pectinated, and the inferior one is inflected near its 
base. ‘The palpi, which are slender, resemble the legs in 
colour, and have a fine slightly curved claw at their extremity. 


Family Epririp&. 
Genus Eprira, Walck. 
Epeira apoclisa. 
Epeira apoclisa, Walck., Hist. Nat. des Insect. Apt. tom. ii. p. 61; Sund., 


404 Mr. J. Blackwall on Sicilian Spiders. 


Vet. Akad. Handl. 1832, p. 248; Hahn, Die Arachn. Band ii. p. 30, 
tab. 48. fig. 116; Blackw., Spiders of Great Britain and Ireland, p. 326, 
pl. 23. fig. 237. 

Epeira arundinacea, Koch, Uebers. des Arachn. Syst. erstes Heft, p. 2; 
Koch, Die Arachn. Band xi. p. 109, tab. 385. fig. 913. 

Titulus 6, Lister, Hist. Animal. Angl., De Aran. p. 36, tab. 1. fig. 6. 


Epeira solers. 


Epeira solers, Walck., Hist. Nat. des Insect. Apt. tom. il. p. 41; Blackw., 
Spiders of Great Britain and Ireland, p. 386, pl. 24. fig. 243. 

agalena, Hahn, Die Arachn. Band ii. p. 29, tab. 47. fig. 115. 

Atea sclopetaria, Koch, Uebers. des Arachn. Syst. erstes Heft, p. 4; Koch, 
Die Arachn. Band xi. p. 134, tab. 390. figs. 934, 935. 


Epeira cucurbitina. 


Epeira cucurbitina, Walck., Hist. Nat. des Insect. Apt. tom. ii. p. 76; 
Latr. Gen. Crust. et Insect. tom. i. a 107; Sund., Vet. Akad. Handl. 
1882, p. 245; Blackw., Spiders of Great Britain and Ireland, p. 342, 

1. 25. fig. 247. 
wranda cucurbitina, Koch, Die Arachn. Band y. p. 53, tab. 159, figs. 371, 
372. 
Titulus 5, Lister, Hist. Animal. Angl., De Aran. p. 34, tab. 1. fig. 5. 


Epeira adianta. 


Epeira adianta, Walck., Hist. Nat. des Insect. Apt. tom. ii. p. 52; Blackw., 
Spiders of Great Britain and Ireland, p. 348, pl. 25. fig. 251. 

segmentata, Sund., Vet. Akad. Handl. 1832, p. 247. 

Miranda pictilis, Koch, Uebers. des Arachn. Syst. erstes Heft, p. 4; Koch, 
Die Arachn. Band v. p. 50, tab. 158, fig. 369. 


Epeira antriada. 


Epeira antriada, Walck., Hist. Nat. des Insect. Apt. tom. ii. p. 83; 
Blackw., Spiders of Great Britain and Ireland, p. 351, pl. 26. fig..  * 
Meta muraria, Koch, Die Arachn. Band viii. p. 125, tab. 288. figs. 693, 694. 


Epeira Heri. 


Epeira Herti, Hahn, Die Arachn. Band i. p. 8, tab. 2. fig.5; Walck., Hist. 
Nat. des Insect. Apt. ii. p. 89; Blackw., Spiders of Great Britain and 
Ireland, p. 366, pl. 27. fig. 264. 

Singa Herw, Koch, Uebers. des Arachn. Syst. erstes Heft, p. 6. 


Genus TETRAGNATHA, Latr. 


Tetragnatha extensa. 


Tetragnatha extensa, Walck., Hist. Nat. des Insect. Apt. tom. ii. p. 208 ; 
Latr., Gen. Crust. et Insect. tom. i. p. 101; Sund., Vet. Akad. Handl. 
1832, p. 256; Hahn, Die Arachn. Band li. p. 48, tab. 56. fig. 129; 
Koch, Uebers. des Arachn. Syst. erstes Heft, p. 5; Blackw., Spiders of 
Great Britain and Ireland, p. 367, pl. 27. fig. 265. 

Titulus 3, Lister, Hist. Animal. Angl., De Aran. p. 30, tab. 1. fig. 3. 


On new Genera and Species of Alcyonoid Corals. 405 


EXPLANATION OF PLATE VIII. 


Fig. 1. Lycosa albocincta, 3 : a, palpal organs, left side; b, outer aspect 
of the same; c, inner aspect; d, sternum in partial profile, to 
show the long erect hairs on its surface. 

Fig. 2. Salticus petilus, 3 : a, palpal organs. 

Fig. 3. Thomisus diversus, 2 : a, cephalothorax ; 6, sexual orifice. 

Fig. 4, Philodromus lepidus, 2: a, anterior portion of cephalothorax, 
represented in a position to show the small pointed process in 
front of the outer pair of eyes in the anterior row; b, sexual 
orifice. 

Fig. 5. Theridion parvulum, 3 : a, eyes. . 

Fig. 6. Ctenophora monticola, 2: a, cephalothorax; 6, maxille and 
labium ; c, sexual orifice; d, portions of the first and second 
pairs of legs, more enlarged, to show the rows of spines. 

Fig. 7. Linyphia polita, 2 : a, eyes. 

Fig. 8. Sketch of a left anterior leg of Galena zonata, highly magnified, 
showing the comb-like appendage. 


XLVI.—WNotes on some new Genera and Species of Alcyonoid 
Corals in the British Museum. By Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S., 
VP Zicte, CEC. 


BUSELLA. 


Coral fan-shaped, forming an oblong frond, very much 
branched and closely reticulated, with a number of short 
club-shaped branchlets diverging from the sides of the frond ; 
branches and branchlets cylindrical, diverging, furcately 
branched. Bark thin, granular, smooth. Polype-cells on 
all sides of the branches and branchlets, sunken, close toge- 
ther, with a small round mouth. Axis continuous, horny, 


black. (Plexauride.) 


Busella occatoria =Rhipidogorgia occatoria, M.-Edw. & 
Haime, Corall. i. 179. 


Hab. Guadeloupe. B.M. 


MURITELLA. 


Coral branched in a plane ; stem much compressed, broad ; 
branches and branchlets subcylindrical, apex subclavate. 
Bark rather thick, granular, with a uniform smooth surface. 
Polype-cells large, entirely sunken, scattered over the whole 
surface of the bark, with a very small contracted linear mouth. 
Axis of the stem and lower branches compressed, horny, of 
branchlets cylindrical, with a horny external coat, and with 
soft pith within. (Plexauride.) 


Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 4. Vol. v. 28 


406 Dr. J. E. Gray on new Genera and Species of 
Muritella fucosa = Gorgonia palma, var. alba, Esper,t.11. B.M. 


G., albicans, Kolliker. 
G. fucosa, Valen. Voy. Vénus, t. 13. 


Hab. California. A very variable species. 


BoOARELLA. 


Coral branched in a plane, fan-shaped, forming an oblong 
frond with a single stem; branches and branchlets slender, 
nearly of the same diameter, netted; branches diverging and 
often inosculating, some of the marginal branchlets free. 
Bark thin, formed of thin scales or spicules. Polype-cells 
subcylindrical, elongate, truncate, membranaceous, translucent, 
with a circular mouth with ten marginal folds and ten short 
valves in an irregular series on each side of the branches, 
diverging in different directions, one, sometimes two or three, 
together. Axis continuous, horny. 


Boarella flabellata. B.M. 


MENACELLA. 


Coral very much branched, fan-shaped, irregularly reticu- 
lated; stem simple. Bark very thin, formed of numerous 
very slender fusiform spicules in bundles, placed in different 
directions. Polype-cells short, cylindrical, covered with spi- 
cules like the bark, with a smooth, convex, eight-rayed lid, 
placed close together on the sides of the branchlets, and more 
scattered and further apart on the sides of the branches. 
(Muriceadze.) 


Menacella reticularis = Gorgonia reticularis, Pallas. . B.M. 


PHAOCELLA. 


Coral branched, fan-like ; stem rather compressed; branches 
irregularly furcate, all in one plane, cylindrical, rarely 
tapering at the end; branchlets, some subpinnate, others sub- 
secund on the upperside of the branches. Bark thin, formed 
of abundance of small fusiform opaque spicules placed in 
groups in different directions. Polype-cells small, on all sides 
of the stem and branches, ascending, with a rather hood-like 
outer surface, forming a short cylindrical tubercle, formed of 
spicules like those of the bark. Axis continuous, horny, black ; 
branches and branchlets tapering. (Muriceade.) 


Pheeocella tuberculata = CGorgonia tuberculata, Esper, 1. t. 37. 
Mediterranean. 


Aleyonoid Corals in the British Museum. 407 


BOVELLA. 


Coral branched, fan-shaped, expanded into an oblong frond ; 
stem simple; branches and branchlets slender, of the same 
diameter throughout, branches radiating and irregularly fur- 
eately divided, with abundance of short branchlets arranged 
rather pinnately and diverging at nearly right angles, forming 
a more or less regular network ; many of the branchlets, espe- 
cially the marginal ones, free. Bark furfuraceous, formed of 
very small soft spicules or thin scales. Polype-cells circular, 
prominent, with a sunken centre and a furfuraceous surface, 
placed on all sides of the branchlets and on the internal sur- 
face of the branches. Axis continuous, horny, black. 


B. ramulosa,n. sp. B.M. 


MENELLA. 


Coral cylindrical, end (of the branches?) clavate, rounded, 
surface spiculose. Polype-cells on all sides of the cylindrical 
stem (and branches), close together, forming a rough spiculose 
surface with hexagonal areole. Polypes retractile; when 
retracted, convex, with an oblong concavity, surrounded with 
spicules. Axis horny, black. 

The only specimen I have seen is simple, cylindrical, and 
clavate ; it is known from all the others by the spiculose sur- 
face. 

Menella indica. 
Coral simple, elongate, cylindrical; end subclavate, white. 


Axis black. 
Hab. Bombay, Back Bay (Captain Thompson). From Mus. 


Liverpool. B.M. 
RHIPIDELLA. 


Coral flabellate, netted. Polypes regular, scattered, in small 
prominent warts. Axis cork-like, with scattered nodules. 


Rhipidella verticillata, Solander, Zoophytes, tab. 17. 
Gorgonia verticillata, Esper, t. 35. 
Rhipidogorgia verticillata, M.-Edw. & Haime, Corall. i. 176. 
Suberigorgia verticillata, Kolliker, Icon. Hist. 142, t. 17. f. 9, t. 19. f. 12, 
15, 27. 


Hab. ? 


LIGNELLA. 


Coral branched; stem cylindrical, tapering; branches fan- 
like, in one plane, angularly diverging. Bark thin, pliable. 
Polype-cells elongate, prominent, scattered on the stem, and 

28* 


408 On new Genera and Species of Alcyonoid Corals. 


rather far apart on the two sides of the branches. Polypes 
with eight tentacles. Axis cylindrical, or rather compressed, 
soft, wood-like, and white, spiculose. 


Lignella Richardt. 
Bark dark fulvous. 


Gorgonia Richardi, Lamx. Pol. flex. 407; Duchass. & Michel. Corall. 
Antilles, 29, tab. 4. fig. 1. 


Hab. West Indies. 
LEUCOELLA. 


Coral branched, fan-like, in the same plane, compressed ; 
branches furcate, upper side convex or angular, lower side 
concave, smooth, barren, with a more or less wide central 
groove. Bark thin and smooth. Polype-cells large and sphe- 
rical, scattered or in lines on the upper surface and margin of 
the stem and branches. Axis white, wood-like, soft, with 
fusiform warty spicules, which are generally slender and elon- 
gate, but some are thicker and more ventricose. 


Leucoella cervicornis. 


Coral irregularly branched; branchlets furcate, crowded. 
Bark dark brown. 
Hab. P BM. 


VIOA. 


_ Coral branched, cylindrical, or slightly compressed ; branches 
subacute. Polype-cells occupying the whole surface, sunken. 
Spicules of the red bark scattered, yellow. Axis placed longi- 
tudinally. 


Vioa, Nardo, Isis, 1832. Type, Aleyoniwm asbestinum. 


Vioa asbestina. 


Porus spongioides, Petiver, Gazoph. t. 22. f. 22. 

Alcyonium asbestinum, Pallas, Zooph. 344; Esper, ii. tab. 5. 
Vioa asbestina, Nardo, Isis, 1882. 

Lobularia asbestina, Ehrenb. Coral. 59, 

Briareum asbestinum, Verrill. 

Briareum suberosum (part.), Koélliker, Icones, p. 141. 
Briarea asbestina, Duchass. & Michel. Corall. Antilles, 15. 


Hab. West Indies. B.M. 


Mr. E. Billings on the Structure of the Crinoidea ic. 409 


XLVII.—Notes on the Structure of the Crinoidea, Cystidea, 
and Blastoidea. By E. Bitiinas, F.G.S., Paleontologist 
of the Geological Survey of Canada*. 

{Continued from p. 266.] 


5. On the Homologies of the Respiratory Organs of the Paleo- 
zote and Recent Echinoderms, and on the “* Convoluted 
Plate” of the Crinoidea. 


In a former note I have advanced the opinion that “ The 
grooves on the ventral disk of Cyathocrinus, and also the in- 
ternal ‘ convoluted plate’ of the paleozoic Crinoids, with the 
tubes radiating therefrom, belong to the respiratory and per- 
haps, in part, to the circulatory systems—not to the digestive 
system. The convoluted plate, with its thickened border, 
seems to foreshadow the ‘ cesophageal circular canal,’ with a 
pendent madreporic apparatus as in the Holothuridea” 
(ante, p. 255, note.) I should have referred it to the ma- 
dreporic system of the existing Echinodermata in general, 
instead of to that of the Holothuridea in particular. At 
the time the note was written I had in view the madreporic 
sac of Holothuria, which, as will be shown further on, most 
resembles in form that of Actinocrinus. The figures and 
descriptions which follow are intended to show the gradual 
passage or conversion of the respiratory organs of the Cystidea, 
Blastoidea, and Paleocrinoidea into the ambulacral canal- 
system of the recent Echinoderms, and that, as the convoluted 
plates of the former have the same structure and connexions 
as the madreporic sacs and tubes or sand-canals of the latter, 
they are most probably all the homologues of each other. 

Among the Cystideans we find several genera, such as Cryp- 
tocrinites, Malocystites, Trochocystites, and apparently some 
others, whose test is totally destitute of respiratory pores, being 
composed of simple solid plates like those of the ordinary 
Crinoidea. In a second group of genera, among which may 
be enumerated Caryocystites, Echinospherites, Paleocystites, 
and Protocystites, the whole of the external integument seems 
to have been respiratory, as all or nearly all of the plates of 
which it is composed are more or less occupied by variously 
arranged poriferous or tubular structures. The Cystideans of 
these two groups hold the lowest rank of all those known. In 
their general structure they are mere sacs, of a globular, 
ovate, or (as in the case of Trochocystites) flattened form. 
Their test consists of an indefinite number of plates without 
any radiated arrangement. They were also, according to our 
present knowledge, the first to make their appearance, two of 

* From Silliman’s American Journal of Science, January 1870. 


410 Mr. E. Billings on the Structure of 
Fig. 1. Fig. 2. 


TZ 


Yyy77 


“ 


i) 
i 


po 


a 
NAMEN 


iyi ypviid 
ornate 


Fig. 1. The upper part of Caryocrinus ornatus, the test being removed in 
order to show the internal structure of the fourteen hydrospires that 
surround the summit. The parallel lines represent the flat tubes. The 
other figures exhibit the modifications which the hydrospires undergo 
in passing through :—fig. 2. Codaster; fig. 3. Pentremites with broad 
ambulacra; fig. 4. Pentremites with single tubes; fig. 5. Paleozoic 
Crinoids with a convoluted plate attached to the centre of radiation ; 
fig. 6. Sand-canal or madreporic tube of a starfish, enclosing a doubly 
convoluted plate; fig. 7. Ambulacral canals of a starfish with the 
doubly convoluted plate of the sand-canal attached to the cesophageal 
ring. The following letters have the same reference in all the figures 


the Crinoidea, Cystidea, and Blastoidea. 411 


the genera, Trochocystites and Hocystites, having been dis- 
covered in the primordial zone. No other Echinoderms have 
been found in rocks of so ancient a date. 

Next in order may be placed those genera whose test is 
composed of a definite number of plates, which have, to some 
extent, a quinary arrangement. ‘Thus Glyptocystites, Echino- 
encrinites, Aptocystites, and several others have each four series 
of calycine plates, of which there are four plates in the basal 
and five in each of the other three series. The respiratory 
areas or hydrospires are reduced in number—ten to thirteen in 
Glyptocystites, and three in most of the other genera of the 
group. Neither in the plates nor in the hydrospires is there 
exhibited any tendency to a radiated arrangement. The most 
ancient genus of this family is Glyptocystites, which first ap- 
pears in “the Chazy Limestone, and seems to have become ex- 
tinct in the Trenton. The other genera occur in various 
horizons between the Chazy and the Devonian. 

In the genera Hemicosmites and Caryocrinus the hydrospires 
in the upper part of the test converge toward but do not reach 
the central point of the apex, thus forming the commence- 
ment of that concentration and complete radiation which 
is exhibited in the ambulacral canal-system of the higher 
Echinoderms. In a former note (ante, p. 259) it is pointed 
out that Caryocrinus has thirty hydrospires—ten at the base 
with their longer diagonals vertical, a zone of six round the 
middle with their diagonals horizontal, and a third band of 
fourteen around the upper part of the fossil. These latter 
are represented in fig. 1 as if spread out on a plane sur- 
face. On consulting this figure, it will be seen that the flat 
tubes of the hydrospires, represented by the parallel lines, all 
converge toward the central point from which the dotted lines 
radiate. ‘This point is the position of the mouth in the recent 
Kchinoderms ; but in Caryocrinus it is occupied by a large 
solid imperforate plate. The hydrospires are arranged in five 
groups. Commencing at mv and going round by 1, 2, &e., 
there are four in the first group, one in the second, four in the 
third, one in the fourth, and four in the fifth. These five 
groups represent the five ambulacral canals of the recent 
Echinoderms. In the specimen from which this diagram was 
constructed there are the bases of fifteen free arms to be seen, 
situated at the outer extremities of the dotted lines. At the 
base of each arm there is a small pore (p), which I believe to 


in which they occur :—a, an arm or ambulacrum; mv, mouth and 
vent combined in a single aperture ; mvs, mouth, vent, ‘and spiracle ; 
g, ambulacral groove; p, ovarian pore; s, spiracle ; cp, convoluted 
plate; 7, cesophageal ring. 


412 Mr. E. Billings on the Structure of 


have been exclusively ovarian in its function. The hydro- 
spires have no connexion whatever with the arms, and are, 
moreover, all of them entirely separated from each other. If, 
then, they represent the ambulacral system of the recent Kehi- 
noderms, it is quite certain that that system was.at first (or in 
the undeveloped stage in which it existed in the Cystidea) 
destitute of the oesophageal ring. 

In Codaster a further concentration of the respiratory organs 
is exhibited. There are here only five hydrospires, and they 
are all confined to the circle around the apex. Two of them 
are incomplete, in order to make room for the large mouth and 
vent (mv, fig. 2). They are each divided into two halves by 
an arm al a2, &e. They are only connected with the arms to 
this extent, that these latter lie back upon them. The arms 
are provided with pinnule ; but it is not at all certain that the 
pinnule were in any direct communication with the hydro- 
spires. It is evident that dn all the Cystidea (and in none 
is it more obvious than in Caryocrinus) there was no con- 
nexion between the hydrospires and the pinnule. The main 
difference (so far as regards the evidence of the presence or 
absence of such a connexion) between Caryocrinus and Co- 
daster consists in this, that in the former the arms are erect 
and do not touch the hydrospires, whereas in the latter they 
are recumbent and lie back upon them. Hach of the arms of 
Codaster has a fine ambulacral groove; and all of the grooves 
terminate in a single central aperture. But, as this aperture 
was covered over by a thin plated integument, as in the Blas- 
toidea, I have not shown it in the diagram, but only the five 
pores, p. 

No one who compares a Codaster with a Pentremites (the 
internal structure of the latter being visible) can doubt that the 
hydrospires of the two genera are perfectly homologous organs. 
If we grind off the test of a species of the latter genus, select- 
ing one for the purpose which has broad petaloid ambulacra, 
such as those of P. Schultziz, the structure exposed will be 
that represented in the diagram fig. 38. In Pentremites, as in 
Oodaster, the five hydrospires are divided into ten equal parts 
by the five rays, a1,a2, &e. In Codaster these ten parts re- 
main entirely separate from each other; but in Pentremites 
they are reunited in pairs, the two in each interradial space 
being so connected at their imner angles that their internal 
cavities open out to the exterior through a single orifice or 
spiracle (s, figs. 3&4). This is best shown in fig. 4, intended 
to represent the structure of P. ellipticus (Sowerby), as de- 
scribed by Mr. Rofe, Geol. Mag. vol. ii. p. 249. In this spe- 
cies the hydrospires, instead of being formed of broad sacs 


the Crinoidea, Cystidea, and Blastoidea. 413 


with a number of folds on one side, consist of ten simple 
cylindrical tubes connected together in five pairs. The only 
difference between the structure of fig. 3 and fig. 4 is in the 
width of the tubes and in the absence of folds in the latter. 
These two forms are, moreover, connected by intermediate 
grades. Species with eleven, ten, eight, six, five, four, and 
two folds being known, there is thus established a gradual 
transition from the broad petaloid form to the single cylindrical 
tube. 

Between the Cystidea and the Blastoidea the most important 
changes are that in the latter the hydrospires become connected 
in pairs, and also are brought into direct communication with 
the pinnule. In the paleeozoic Crinoidea (or at least in many 
of them) concentration is carried one step further forward, the 
five pairs of hydrospires being here all connected together at 
the centre, as in fig. 5. There is as yet no cesophageal ring (as 
T understand it), but in its place the convoluted plate described 
in the excellent papers of Messrs. Meek and Worthen. ‘This 
organ, according to the authors, consists of a convoluted plate 
resembling in form the shell of a Bulla or Scaphander. It is 
situated within the body of the Crinoid, with its longer axis 
vertical and the upper end just under the centre of the ventral 
disk. Its lower extremity approaches, but does not quite 
touch, the bottom of the visceral cavity. Its walls are com- 
posed of minute polygonal plates, or of an extremely delicate 
network of anastomosing fibres. The five ambulacral canals 
are attached to the upper extremity, radiate outward to the 
walls of the cup, and are seen to pass through the ambulacral 
orifices outward into the grooves of the arms. (Silliman’s 
Journ. vol. xlviii. p. 31.) 

The ambulacral canals of the Crinoidea are, for the greater 
part, respiratory in their function. They are, however, as most 
naturalists who have studied their structure will admit, truly 
the homologues of those of the Echinodermata in general. In 
the higher orders of this class the canals are usually more 
specialized than they are in the lower, being provided with 
prehensive or locomotive organs. In all of the existing 
orders, including the recent Crinoidea, we find an cesophageal 
ring. 

Po this organ, which is only a continuation of the canals, 
are attached the madreporic appendages. These consist of 
small sacs or slender tubes, varying greatly in form and num- 
ber in the different genera. That of the starfish Asteracanthion 
rubens is thus described by Prof. E. Forbes :—‘‘On the dorsal 
surface is seen a wart-like striated body placed laterally be- 
tween two of the rays: this is the madreporiform tubercle or 


414 Mr. E. Billings on the Structure of 


nucleus. When the animal is cut open, there is seen a curved 
calcareous column running obliquely from the tubercle to the 
plates surrounding the mouth; Dr. Sharpey says it opens by 
a narrow orifice into the circular vessel. It is connected by a 
membrane with one side of the animal, and is itself invested 
with a pretty strong skin, which is covered with vibratile 
cilia. Its form is that of a plate rolled in at the margins till 
they meet. It feels gritty, as if full of sand. When we exa- 
mine it with the microscope, we find it to consist of minute 
calcareous plates, which are united into plates or joints, so that 
when the investing membrane is removed, it has the appear- 
ance of a jointed column. Professor Ehrenberg remarked the 
former structure, Dr. Sharpey the latter: they are both right. 
Both structures may be seen in the column of the common 
cross-fish.” (Forbes, ‘ British Starfishes,’ p. 73.) 

In Prof. Joh. Miiller’s work, ‘ Ueber den Bau der Echino- 
dermen,’ several forms of the madreporic appendages of the 
different groups of the recent Echinodermata are described. 
In general they are composed of a soft or moderately hard 
skin consisting of a minute tissue of calcareous fibres or of 
small polygonal plates. The walls are also sometimes mi- 
nutely poriferous. In all the Holothurians the madreporic 
organ is a sac attached by one of its ends to the cesophageal 
canal, the other extremity hanging freely down into the peri- 
visceral cavity, not connected with the opposite body-wall, as 
is the sand-canal of the starfishes (op. c7t. p. 84). In its con- 
sisting of a convoluted plate, the madreporic organ of Actino- 
crinus therefore agrees with that of the starfishes, while in its 
being only attached at one extremity it resembles that of the 
Holothurians. 

The convoluted plate of the paleozoic Crinoids and the 
madreporic sacs and tubes (or sand-canals) of the recent 
Echinoderms, therefore, all agree in the following respects :-— 

1. They have the same general structure. 

2. They are all appendages of the ambulacral system. 

3. They are all attached to the same part of the system— 
that is to say, to the central point from which the canals 
radiate. 

The above seems to me sufficient to make out at least a good 
prima facie case for the position I have assumed. When 
among the petrified remains of an extinct animal we find an 
organ which has the same general form and structure as has 
one that occurs in an existing species of the same zoological 
group, we may, with much probability of being correct in our 
opinion, conclude that the two are homologous, even although 
we may not be able positively to see how that of the fossil is 


the Crinoidea, Cystidea, and Blastoidea. 415 


connected with any other part. But when, as in this instance, 
we can actually see that it is an appendage of another organ 
(or system of organs, rather), which is known to be the homo- 
logue of the part with which that of the existing species is 
always correlated, we have evidence of a very high order on 
which to ground a conclusion. By no other mode of reasoning 
can we prove that the column of an Acténocrinus is the homo- 
logue of that of Pentacrinus caput Meduse. 

In an important paper entitled ‘“‘ Remarks on the Blastoidea, 
with Descriptions of New Species,” which Messrs. Meek and 
Worthen have kindly sent me, the authors, in their comments 
upon my views, state that— 

“Tn regard to the internal convoluted organ seen in so many 
of the Actinocrinide, belonging to the respiratory instead of the 
digestive system, we would remark that its large size seems to 
us a strong objection to such a conclusion. In many instances 
it so nearly fills the whole internal cavity that there would 
appear to be entirely inadequate space left for an organ like a 
digestive sac outside of it, while the volutions within would 
preclude the presence of an independent digestive sac there. 
In addition to this, the entire absence, so far as we can ascer- 
tain, of any analogous internal respiratory organ in the whole 
range of the recent Kchinodermata, including the existing 
Crinoids, would appear to be against the conclusion that this 
is such, unless we adopt the conclusion of Dujardin and Hupé, 
that the paleeozoic Crinoids had no internal digestive organs, 
and were nourished by absorption over the whole surface. 
We should certainly think it far more probable that this spiral 
organ is the digestive sac than a part of a respiratory appa- 
ratus.”’ 

The objection here advanced does not appear to me to-be a 
strong one. In many of the lower animals the digestive organs 
are of inconsiderable size in proportion to the whole bulk. In 
the Brachiopoda, for instance, the spiral ciliated arms fill nearly 
the whole of the internal cavity, the digestive sac being very 
small and occupying only a limited space near the hinge. 
These arms, although not the homologues of the convoluted 
plates of the paleeozoic Crinoids, have a strong resemblance to 
them, and are, moreover, at least to some extent, subservient 
to respiration. They are certainly not digestive sacs. In the 
recent Echinoderms the intestine is usually a slender tube 
with one or more curves between the mouth and the anus. It 
fills onlya small part of the cavity of the body, the remainder 
being occupied mostly by the chylaqueous fluid, which is con- 
stantly in motion and undergoing aération through the agency 
of various organs, such as the respiratory tree and branchial 


416 Viscount Walden on new Species of 


cirri of the Holothuride, the dorsal tubuli of the Asteride, 
and the ambulacral systems of canals of the class generally. 
In no division of the animal kingdom do the respiratory 
organs occupy a larger proportion of the whole bulk than 
they do in the Echinodermata. The great size which the 
convoluted plate attains in some of the Crinoids is therefore 
rather more in favour of its being a respiratory than a digestive 
organ. 

Professor Wyville Thomson says that, inside of the cavity 
of the stomach of the recent Crinoid Antedon rosaceus, there 
is a spiral series of glandular folds, which he supposes to be a 
rudimentary liver (Phil. Trans. R. 8. 1865, p. 525). It is 
barely possible that the convoluted plate may represent this 
organ. At present I think it does not. 

I believe that the reason why the convoluted plate attained 
a greater proportional size in the paleozoic Crinoids than do 
the sand-canals of the recent Echinoderms, is that the function 
of the system of canals (of which they are all appendages) was 
at first mostly respiratory, whereas in the greater number of 
the existing groups it is more or less prehensive or locomotive, 
or both. 


[To be continued. | 


XLVIUI.—Descriptions of some new Species of Birds from 
Southern Asia. By Artruur, Viscount WALDEN, P.Z.S. &e. 


Geocichla layardi, n. sp. 


The Geocichla of Ceylon is most nearly allied to G. cttrina, 
(Lath.), of Northern and Central India, and not, as might 
have been expected, to G. cyanota, (J. & 8.), of Malabar. 
From Latham’s bird it is to be readily distinguished by the 
much deeper orange of the head and nape, these parts being 
of the same dark shade of orange-brown characteristic of G. 
rubecula, Gould, ex Java. On the under surface the orange 
tints are brighter and richer than in citrina, yet not nearly so 
dark as in G. rubecula; the blue-grey portion of the plu- 
mage is likewise darker than in G. c7trina, but not so dark as 
in G. rubecula. In the distribution of the white plumage the 
three species resemble each other; they appear, along with 
G. rubiginosa, Miller, ex Timor, to form a small natural sec- 
tion. Wing 4% inches, bill +. 

Described from a single Ceylon example, and which is 
marked by the collector as “ rare.” 


Birds from Southern Asia. 417 


Irena turcosa, n. sp. 
Irena puella, (Lath.), Horsf. Linn. Tr. xiii. p. 153. 


The species belonging to the genus Jrena may be divided 
into two sections :—the first consisting of a single species, J. 
cyanogastra, Vigors, from the Philippines; the second com- 
prising, at the least, three closely related species, of which 
I. puella, (Latham), may be made the type. JL. puella appears 
to be restricted to the Western Ghauts of India and to Ceylon; 
for, judging only, it is true, from examples of the female, the 
Burmese race belongs to that of Malacca; and individuals 
from Arracan and Assam will, in all probability, be found to 
agree with those from Burma. The Malayan form, J. cyanea, 
(Begbie), (Malayan peninsula, 1834) =J. malayensis, Moore, 
frequents both the peninsula of Malacca and the island of 
Sumatra ; for between examples from these two localities I can 
detect no distinction. Java contains a third species, the J. 
puella, (Lath.), ap. Horsf.; and it is for this species I propose 
the title given above. As in J. cyanea, (Begbie), the Javan 
Irena has the upper and under tail-coverts much more deve- 
loped than in J. puella from the Western Ghauts. In my 
Javan examples the tail-coverts surpass the rectrices in length, 
while in J. cyanea the coverts do not quite equal the rectrices. 
The bill of J. turcosa is also stouter than that of J. cyanea. 
But the Javan Jrena is most distinguished by the blue colour- 
ing of the upper plumage being light turquoise. When com- 
pared together, the Malabar Jrena is dark blue, inclining, in 
some lights, to purple; the Malayan is of a somewhat lighter 
shade of blue; the Javan is light blue. In all three species 
the length of the wing is equal. In the Malabar bird the tail 
exceeds that of the other two by a quarter of an inch. The 
females of the Malayan and Javan species closely resemble 
each other in the colour of their plumage; the female of the 
Malabar bird is much darker, and easily recognizable. 

Latham’s Fairy Roller (Syn. Suppl. 1. p. 87) was described 
from adrawing by Lady Impey. If the subject of that draw- 
ing was from Kastern India or the Malay peninsula (in itself 
most highly probable), the Malayan species will bear the title 
of I. puella, (Latham), and the Malabar bird that of J. indica, 
A. Hay; but, as the point is seemingly beyond the reach of 
proof, it will be best to adhere to the titles given above. 


Ephialtes jerdoni, n. sp. 
Ephialtes lempiji, Horsf., Jerdon, in part, B. of Ind. i. p. 138. 


This title is suggested for the larger Scops owl of Malabar. 
Mr. Gurney, to whom I have submitted a large series of Z. 


418 Mr. A. Adams on Japanese Species 


lempij?, (Horsf.), and its affined species, concurs with me in the 
propricty of bestowing a separate title on the species inhabit- 
ing the Western Ghauts of India. It is chiefly characterized 
by the ruddy ground-colour of its plumage, and the tarsal 
feathers being nearly, if not quite, immaculate. This and 
Scops griseus, Jerd., form two well-marked species, both dif- 
fering from Javan examples of H. lempii, (Horst.), the first 
inhabiting the Western Ghauts, the second the Eastern, and 
also the forests in the vicinity of Maunbhoom. 


XLIX.—On some Species of Proboscidiferous Gasteropods 
which inhabit the Seas of Japan. By Artuur ADAMS, 
F.L.S., Staff-Surgeon, R.N. : 


Since I published my paper, in the ‘ Journal of the Linnean 
Society’ for 1863, on the species of Fuside: which were found 
by myself in Japan, I have seen the elaborate work of Dr. 
Schrenck on the Mollusca of Amur-Land and the Seas of 
Northern Japan. He there figures a very fine species of 
Neptunea, a group which seems to have its headquarters in 
northern seas, which he has named Buccinum pericochlion, 
and which is very similar in form to the elegant shell named 
by Dr. Baird Chrysodomust abulatus, from Vancouver's Island. 
Buccinum yessoensis, Schrenck, which I found in Aniwa Bay, 
in the island of Saghalien, belongs, I believe, to the genus 
Urosalpinx, recently established by Stimpson, as does also 
Euthria badia, A. Ad., from Tsus-Sima. The /usus lineolatus, 
Dkr. (Bucceinum Dunkeri, Kiist.), is a Cape species of Comz- 
nella, but is stated by Schrenck to be also found in Hakodadi 
Bay. 

Inthe ‘Annals and Magazine of Natural History’ for March 
1863, I described twelve species of Siphonalia, a Fusoid 
genus which seems to represent Neptunea in the south of 
Japan. In the ‘ Proceedings of the Zoological Society’ for 
1862 the species of Muricidee found in Japan are enumerated ; 
and in the ‘Journal of the Linnean Society,’ vol. vii., I have 
given a list of the species of Mitride: found by myself in 
Japanese waters. I now present the results of my personal 
knowledge of some other families of Proboscidiferous Gastero- 
pods which inhabit the seas of Japan. 


Fam. Tritoniide. 
Genus Tritontum, Link. 
T. Saulie, Rve. (Triton), Conch. Icon. Mon. Triton. 
Hab. Tatiyama, Tsusaki, Takano-Sima, Bay of Yeddo. 


of Proboscidiferous Gasteropods. 419 


Genus SimpuuuM, Klein.- 
1. S. olearium, Linn. (Murex), Syst. Nat. ed. 12. 


Murex costatus, Born. 
parthenopus, Dillw. 
Triton succinctus, Lamk. 
olearius, Rye. sp. 82. 


Hab. Tatiyama. 
2. S. lirostoma, A. Ad. 


S. testa ovato-fusiformi, rufo-fusca; anfractibus 6, convexis, va- 
rice unico postice complanato, longitudinaliter plicatis, trans- 
versim crenulatis, ad plicas nodulosis et liris duplicis instructis, 
interstitiis cancellatis ; apertura ovata, labio transversim corrugato- 
plicato, plicis postice et antice validioribus, canali elongato vix 
recurvo; labro extus fimbriatim varicoso, intus valde lirato, mar- 
gine crenato. 


Hab. Simidsu. 


A species of ordinary form, with a strongly lirate aperture 
and with the transverse ridges and lire all double. 


3. S. papillosum, A. Ad. 


S. testa acuminato-ovata, alba, punctis rubris ornata, spira acuta, 
aperturam equante; anfractibus 6, planis, serie tuberculorum 
rubrorum circumcinctis ad suturas monile granulorum instru- 
ctis; anfractu ultimo seriebus tribus granularum quarum duabus 
anterioribus parvis, lirisque paucis granulosis intermediis, an- 
fractu ultimo varice unico ad latus sinistrum; apertura subcir- 
culari, labio transversim rugoso-plicato, postice tuberculo valido 
dentiformi instructo, canali mediocri dextrorsum inclinato; labro 
extus varicoso, intus levi, postice emarginatione canaliculato in- 
structo. 


Hab. Takano-Sima. 


A white shell, with red papillose tubercles and rows of 
necklace-like intermediate lire. 


4. S. nodiliratum, A. Ad. 


S. testa ovato-fusiformi, alba, spira quam apertura longiore ; anfracti- 
bus 6, planis, subimbricatis, ad suturas excavatis, longitudinaliter 
plicatis, plicis liris transversis validis nodulosis decussatis, inter- 
stitiis interdum lirula granulosa instructis; apertura ovato-ob- 
longa; labio transversim rugoso-plicato; labro intus nodoso- 
plicato, extus varice crasso instructo, canali brevi, angusto, yix 
recurvato. 


Hab. Japan. Coll. Cuming. 


A small, white, ovate species, with nodosely lirate whorls. 


420 Mr. A. Adams on Japanese Species 
5. S. tringa, A. Ad. 


S. testa ovato-fusiformi, spira quam apertura longiore, fusca fulvo 
rufoque variegata, epidermide tenui, pilosa obtecta ; anfractibus 8, 
subdistortis, varicibus paucis irregulariter nodoso-plicatis instructis, 
in anfractu ultimo quatuor, prope aperturam varice unico dupli- 
cato, prope labrum varicibus duobus nodiformibus sulcis longitu- 
dinalibus et liris transversis decussatis; apertura ovata; labio 
circumscripto, transversim lirato, rostro elongato, tenui, rectius- 
culo; labro intus nodoso-plicato, extus valde varicoso. 


Hab. Uraga. 

-A small species, with the aperture resembling the profile of 
a plover’s head, and with a slender straight beak at the fore 
part. 

Genus CABESTANA, Bolt. 
1. C. labiosa, Wood (Triton), Ind. Test. Suppl. pl. 5. f. 18. 


Tritonium rutilum, Mke. 


Hab. Uraga, 21 fathoms. 
2. C. dorsuosa, A. Ad. 


C. testa ovato-fusiformi, epidermide tenui fusca induta, spira quam 
apertura longiore ; anfractibus 5, varice unico rotundato, nodoso- 
plicato, plicis in anfractu ultimo antice obsoletis, transversim 
porcatis, porcis duplicibus, interstitiis liris duabus crenulatis ; 
apertura ovata; labio antice transversim subplicato, canali recto 
brevi; labro extus varicoso, intus nodoso-lirato. 

Hab, Tatiyama. 
A fuscous-brown species, strongly nodose on the back of 
the last whorl. 


Genus GUTTERNIUM, Klein. 
G. moritinctum, Rve. (Triton), Conch. Icon. sp. 49. 
Hab. Tatiyama. 


Genus Epipromvs, Klein. 
E. reticosus, A. Ad. 


E. testa ovato-fusiformi, fulva, hine et illuc maculis rufescentibus 
tincta, spira quam apertura longiore; anfractibus 7, convexis, longi- 
tudinaliter plicatis, plicis rotundis, distantibus, in anfractu ultimo 
nodo magno variciformi instructo, transversim valde liratis, liris 
zequalibus, regularibus, subdistantibus; apertura anguste ovata; 
labio transyersim rugoso-plicato, canali brevi, recto, oblique 
trunecato; labro intus valde lirato, margine extus varice crasso 
instructo. 

Hab. Japan. Coll. Cuming. 
A small, reticulate, Phos-like species, with regular plicate 
whorls and a short canal. 


of Proboscidiferous G'asteropods. 421 


Genus Disrorsio, Bolt. 
D. decipiens, Rve. (Triton), Conch. Icon. sp. 102. 
Hab. Satanomosaki, 55 fathoms ; Okosiri, 35 fathoms. 


Genus Bursa, Bolt. 
B. subgranosa, Beck (Ranella), Sow. Conch. Illustr. Ranella, 
fi, 16; Reeve, sp. 1) 
Ranella Beckii, Kien. 
Hab. Seto-Uchi, Tomo. 


Genus ARGOBUCCINUM, Klein. 
A. olivator, Meusch. (Murex), Mart. Conch. vol. iv. pl. 128. 
f. 1229. 


Gyrineum natator, Bolt. 
Ranella tuberculata, Brod. & Sow. Proc. Zool. Soc. 1882. 


Hab. 'Tatiyama. 


Genus Eupiteura, H. & A. Ad.. 
E. perea, Perry (Biplex), Conch. pl. 4. f. 5. 
Ranella jrilchra, Gray, Sow. Conch. Mlustr. Ranella, f. 19, 
Hab, Kuro-Sima, 52 fathoms. 


Fam. Buccinide: 
Subfam. Buceryrv x. 
Genus Buccryum, Linn. 
1. B. glaciale, Linn. Syst. Nat. ed. 12. p. 1204; Rve. sp. 18. 


Tritonium glaciale, Mull. 
Buccinum carinatum, Phipps. 
angulosum, Gray, Beech. Voy. pl. 36. f. 6. 


Hab. Cape Notoro, Aniwa Bay, Saghalien, Sio-Wuhu. 
2. B. undatum, Linn. Syst. Nat. ed. 12. p. 1204; Rve. sp. 3. 


Buccinum vulgare, Da Costa. 
striatum, Penn. 
solutum, Dillw. 

— labradorense, Rve. 
—— pyramidale, Rve. 
pelagicum, King, 
schantaricum, Schr. 


Hab. Aniwa Bay, Gulf of Tartary, Sio-Wuhu. 
3. B. japonicum, A. Ad. Ann. & Mag. N. H. 1861, 


Hab. Okosiri, 35 fathoms. 


A small but exquisite species. Aaland 
Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 4. Vol. v. 29 


422 Mr. A. Adams on Japanese Species 


4. B. ochotense, Midd. Reise in Sibir. t. 10. f. 12, t. 9. f. 5. 
Hab. Saghalien (Schr.). 


Genus VOLUTHARPA, Fischer. 
1. V. ampullacea, Midd. (Bullia), Beitr. zu einer Malac. Ros- 
sica, ll. p. 180. 
Hab. Aniwa Bay, Saghalien (17 fathoms), Gulf of Tartary 
(29 fathoms). 
2. V. Perry, Jay (Bullia), Perry’s Exp. to Japan, Appendix. 
Hab. Hakodadi Bay. 


3. V. Fischertana, A. Ad. 


V. testa ovata, tenui, fragili, epidermide fusca, tenui, crebre ciliata 
induta; spira brevissima, apice subpapillato; anfractu ultimo 
ventricoso, sutura impressa; apertura ampla, dilatata, intus alba, 
antice emarginata; labio callo albo levissimo tenui obtecto; 
labro margine arcuato, semicirculari. 

Long. 1 in., diam. 11 lin. 


Hab. Korea Strait, South Japan. 


A very neat species from the south of Japan, intermediate 
in form between V. ampullacea, Midd., and V. Perry?, Jay. 
It is a thinner and smaller shell, with a hispid epidermis, the 
short hairs being arranged in close-set cross rows, giving the 
surface a reticulated appearance. 


Subfam. Pvrevri 2%. 
Genus TriBuLus, Klein. 


1. T. echinatus, Blainy. (Ricinula), Nouv. Ann. du Mus. pl. 11. 
f.2; Reeve, Conch. Icon. (Purpura) sp. 33. 


ab. Tatiyama, Sado. 


2. T. tumulosus, Rve. (Purpura), Conch. Icon. sp. 55. 
Hab. 'Tsus-Sima, Yeddo Bay (Lischke). 


3. T. Bronni, Dkr. (Purpura), Moll. Japan. pl. 1. f. 23. 
Hab. Nagasaki, Tatiyama. 


Genus STRAMONITA, Schum. 
1. S. hemastoma, Linn. (Buceinum), Syst. Nat. ed, 12. p. 1202. 


Purpura hemastoma, Rve. sp. 21. 
cornuta, Mke. 


Hab, Hakodadi Bay. 


of Proboscidiferous Gasteropods. 423 


2. S. luteostoma, Chem. (Bucci’num), Conch. Cab. vol. ix. p. 83, 
pl. 187. f. 1800, 1801. 
Purpura luteostoma, Rve. sp. 35. 
Hab. Tsus-Sima, Tatiyama (A. Ad.) ; Hakodadi (Schr.), 
Yokohama (Lischke). 


3. S. undata, Lamk. (Purpura), Hist. Nat. ed. 2. t. 10, p. 67. 
Purpura rustica, Lamk. 


Hab, Hakodadi (Schr.). 


Genus PoLyTropa, Swains. 
1. P. lapillus, Linn. (Buecinum), Syst. Nat. ed. 12. p. 1202. 


Buccinum filosum, Gmel. 
Purpura lapillus, Lamk. 
imbricata, Lamk. 
—— bizonalis, Lamk. 
Jimbriata, Lamk. 
squamosa, Lamk. 
—— Freycineti, Desh. 
attenuata, Rye. ? 
analoga, Forbes. 


Hab. Cape Notoro, Saghalien, Hakodadi, Rifunsiri. 


2. P. decemcostata, Midd. (Purpura), Beitrige zu einer Malac. 
Rossica, Taf. 9. f. 1, 2, 3. 
P. canaliculata, Ducl. 


Hab. Cape Tofuts, Aniwa Bay. 


3. P. crispata, Chemn. (Buccinum), Conch. Cab. 


P. septentrionalis, Rve. (Purpura), Conch. Icon. sp. 50. 
P. plicata, Mart. 
P. lactuca, Esch. 


Hab, Aniwa Bay, Saghalien, Olga Bay, Vladimir Bay. 


Genus Sistrum, Montf. 
1. S. tuberculatum, Blainv. (Ricinula), Nouv. Ann. du Mus. 
pl. 9. f.3; Reeve, Conch. Icon. (Purpura) sp. 11. 


Purpura marginella, Blainv. 
granulata, Ducl. 


Hab, Sado, Tsus-Sima, Tatiyama. 


2. S. siderewm, Rve. (Ricinula), Conch. Icon. sp. 14. 
Hab. Takano-Sima. 


Genus Encina, Gray. 
1. E. acuminata, Rve. (Ricinula), Conch. Icon. sp, 52. 


Hab. Tsus-Sima. 
29* 


424 Mr. A. Adams on Japanese Species 


2. E. concinna, Rve. (Ricinula), Conch. Icon. sp. 35. 
Cantharus Menkeanus, Dix. Moll. Japon. pl. 1. f. 7. 
Hab. Kino-O-Sima. 


Genus PustosTtoMA, Swains. 
1. P. mendicarium, Linn, (Buccinum), Rve. Conch. Icon. (£2- 
cinula) sp. 8. 
Columbella mendicaria, Lamk. 


Hab. Awa-Sima. 


2. P. trifasciatum, Rve. (Licinula), Conch. Icon. sp. 41. 
Hab. Okino-Sima. 


Subfam. Raupanivx. 


Genus RAPANA, Schum. 
1. R. bezoar, Linn. (Buccinum), Syst. Nat. ed. 12. 


Murex rapiformis, Born, var. b. 
Purpura bezoar, Kien. 

(Rapana) Thomasiana, Crosse. 
In Japanese ‘ Nuskai.”’ 


Hab. Simoda, Yokohama, Hakodadi. 


2. R. bulbosa, Soland. (Buccinum), Dillw. Cat. of Shells, vol. ii. 
p- 631. 


Murex rapa, Gmel. (not Linn.). 
rapiformis, Born, var. a. 
Rapa crassa, Mart. 

Murex radix, Meusch. 

Pyrula rapa, Lamk. 


Hab. Satanomosaki, 55 fathoms. 


Genus CorRALLIOPHILA, H. & A. Ad. 
C. monodonta, Quoy & Gaim. (Purpura), Moll. Voy. de l’Astr. 


vol. il. 
Purpura madreporarum, Sow. 


Hab. Hakodadi Bay (Schrenck). 


Genus LEPTOCONCHUS, Riipp. 
1. L. Perontt, Lamk. (Magilus), Hist. An. s. Vert. vol. x. 


Leptoconchus striatus, Rupp. Trans. Zool. Soc. Lond, vol. i. p. 259, pl. 23. 
f. 9, 10. 


Hab. Kino-O-Sima, in Madrepores. 


2. L. rostratus, A. Ad. Ann. & Mag. N. H. 1864. 
Hab. Kino-O-Sima, in Madrepores. 


of Proboscidiferous Gasteropods. 425 


Subfam. Nassrvz. 
: Genus Nassa, Martini. 
N. mutabilis, Linn. (Buccinum), Syst. Nat. ed. 12. p. 1201; 


Reeve, Conch. Icon. (Nassa) sp. 6. 


Buceinum gibbum, Brug. 

foliosum, Wood. 

Nassa gibba, Roissy. 

suffiata, Gould, Otia Conch. p. 127. 


Hab, 'Takano-Sima, Mososeki, Seto-Uchi. 


P 


Genus Niorna, H. & A. Ad. 
1, N. Cumingit, A. Ad. (Nassa), Proc. Zool. Soc. 1851, p. 98. 
Hab, Tatiyama. 
2. N. marginulata, Lamk. (Bucctnum), Hist. An. s. Vert. vol. x. 
p- 182; Rve. Conch. Icon. (Nassa) sp. 43. 
Hab. Satanomosaki, Seto-Uchi. 


3. N. gemmulifera, A. Ad. (Nassa), Proc. Zool. Soc. 1851, p. 99. 
Hab. Seto-Uchi, Akasi, Kino-O-Sima (25 fathoms). 


4, N. globosa, Quoy & Gaim. (Buccinum), Voy. de |’ Astr., 
Zool. vol. i. tab. 32. f. 25, 27 


Buccinum clathratum, Kien. (not Born). 
Hab. Japan (Dkr.). 

5. N. livescens, Phil. (Buccinum), Zeitschr. f. Mal. 1848, p. 135. 
Hab. Japan (Dkr.). 


6. N. celata, A. Ad. (Nassa), Proc. Zool. Soc. 1851; Rve. 
Conch. Icon. 


Hab. Mososeki, Seto-Uchi. 


Genus ZeEuxIS, H. & A. Ad. 
1. Z. varicifera, A. Ad. (Nassa), Proc. Zool. Soc. 1851. 
Hab. 'Tsaulian. 
2. Z. siquijorensis, A. Ad. (Nassa), Proc. Zool. Soc. 1851 ; 
Rve. Conch. Icon. Nassa, sp. 53. 
Hab. Tsaulian, Tomo, Seto-Uchi. 
3. Z. succincta, A. Ad. (Nassa), Proc. Zool. Soc. 1851; Rve. 
Conch. Icon. (Nassa) sp. 80. 
Hab. Seto-Uchi, Mososeki. 


426 Mr. A. Adams on Japanese Species 


4. Z. micans, A. Ad. (Nassa), Proc. Zool. Soc. 1851; Rve. 
Conch. Icon. (Nassa) sp. 140. 
Hab. Uraga. 
5. Z. clandestina, A. Ad. 


Z. testa ovato-fusiformi, cinerea, obscure fusco reticulata, levi; an- 
fractibus planiusculis, supremis levibus; anfractu ultimo trans- 
versim valde sulcato, labro callo circumscripto tecto; apertura 
subrhomboidea ; labro intus valde lirato, margine antice integro. 
Hab. Seto-Uchi, Idsuma-Nada, Yobuko. 

A somewhat doubtful form of Zeuxis, marked obscurely like 
Nitidella cribraria, and having many of the characters of the 
group Amycla. The nearest approach, however, is Nassa 
micans, A. Ad., in which the outer lip is crenulated and the 


upper whorls are costellate and which has all the characters of 
a Zeuxis. 


Genus Czsi4, H. & A. Ad. 
C. japonica, A. Ad. (Nassa), Proc. Zool. Soc. 1851, p. 110. 
Hab. Seto-Uchi, Uraga, Kino-O-Sima, Sado. 


Genus Him, Leach. 
1. H. fraterculus, Dkr. (Nassa), Moll. Japon. tab. 1. f. 15. 
Hab, Tatiyama, Hakodadi, Simoda, Nagasaki. 


2. H. plebecula, Gould, (Nassa), Otia Conch. p. 128. 
Hab. O-Sima. 
Genus Hesra, H. & A. Ad. 
H. a, Quoy & Gaim. (Buccinum), Voy. de]’Astr. pl. 32. 


? 


Hab. Tsaulian, Kino-O-Sima. 


Genus TritT1A, Risso. 


T. festiva, Powis (Nassa), Proc. Zool. Soc. 1835, p. 95. 
Nassa lineata, Dkr. Moll. Japon. tab. 1. f. 22. 
Hab. Hakodadi. 


Genus Amycia, H. & A. Ad. 
1. A. varians, Dkr. Moll. Japon. tab. 1. f. 17. 


? Buccinum scriptum, Linn., non Columbella scripta, Lamk. 


Hab. Tatiyama, Hakodadi, Rifunsiri. 


2. A. fasciolata, Lamk. (Buccinum), Hist. An. s. Vert. 
? Columbella trivittata, Gld. 
Hah, Tsus-Sima, on coral. 


of Proboscidiferous Glasteropods. 427 


3. A. gausapata, Gould, (Columbella), Otia Conch. p. 71. 
Hab. Awa-Sima; Tabu-Sima, on the shore. 

4. A. achatina, Sow. (Columbella), Thes. Conch. pl. 39. f. 126. 
Hab. Gotto Islands. 


Genus DESMOULEA, Gray. 
1. D. japonica, A. Ad. Proc. Zool. Soc. 1851. 


Nassa japonica, Rve. Conch. Icon. sp. 195. 


Hab. Japan (Dr. Siebold). 


2. D. crassa, A. Ad. Proc. Zool. Soc. 1851. 
Nassa ponderosa, Rve. Conch. Icon. sp. 196. 
Hab. Japan (Dr. Siebold). 


Genus Esurna, Lam. 
E. japonica, Rve. Conch. Icon. (Eburna) sp. 3. 
Hab. Tatiyama, Simoda, Nagasaki, Sado. 


Subfam. Pxosrv-z. 
Genus Pxos, Montf. 
P. varicosus, Gould, Otia Conch. p. 66. 
Hab. Satanomosaki, 55 fathoms. 


Genus CYLLENE, Gray. 


1. C. pulchella, Ad. & Rve. Zool. Voy. Sam. pl. 10. £11; 
Sow. Thes. Conch. (Cyllene) f. 24, 25. 


Hab. Satanomosaki, 55 fathoms. 
2. C. orientalis, A. Ad. Proc. Zool. Soc. 1850. 
Hab. Gotto Islands. 
3. C. glabrata, A. Ad. Proc. Zool. Soc. 1850; Sow. Thes. 
Conch. (Cyllene) f. 14, 15. 
Hab. Satanomosaki, 55 fathoms. 
4, C. fuscata, A. Ad. Proc. Zool. Soc. 1850; Sow. Thes. 
Conch. (Cyllene) f. 16, 17, 18. 


Hab. Kuro-Sima. 
5. C. gibba, A. Ad. 
C. testa ovato-acuminata, levi, crassa, spira attenuata, apice acuto, 
obsolete transversim sulcata, albida, maculis spadiceis obscure 
variegata ; anfractu ultimo gibboso, inferne tumido, antice trans- 


428 Mr. A. Adams on Japanese Species 


versim valde sulcato; apertura spiram sequante ; labio antice 
rugoso-plicato; labro margine incrassato, intus valde lirato. 


Hab. Kino-O-Sima, on the sands. 


This is a small gibbous species, with smooth simple whorls 
and an attenuated pointed spire. 


Fam. Fasciolariide. 
Genus FascroLarta, Lamk. 


F. filamentosa, Chemn. (Fusus), Conch. Cab. t. 140. f. 1310, 
A511. 


Yeptunea cincta, Link. 


Hab. Hakodadi (Lindholm), Takano-Sima (A. Ad.). 


Genus Latuyrus, Montf. 
1. L. (Plicatella) polygonus, Linn. Syst. Nat. ed. 12. 
Hab. Tatiyama. 


2. L. rhodostoma, Dkr. (Turbinella), Moll. Japon. pl. 1. f. 21. 
Hab. 'Tsaulian. 


Fam. Volutide. 
Subfam. Crue x. 
Genus Meo, Humphr. 
M. Broderipit, Gray, Sow. Thes. Conch. (Aelo) sp. 8, f. 26, 27. 
Hab. Japan (Humphr.). 


Subfam. Vororivz. 
Genus SCAPHELLA, Swains. 
S. (Alcithoé) megaspira, Sow. Thes. Conch. (Voluta) sp. 38, 
f. 31, 32. 


Voluta liréfor mis, Kien. (not Swains. or Lam.). 
es Crosse, Journ. de Conch. 1870, ser. 3. tom. x. pl. 1. f. 5, 
pl. 2 


Hab. Hakodadi Bay, dead on the shore. 


Genus FuULGORARIA, Schum. 
F. fulgura, Mart. (Voluta), Sow. Thes. Conch. ( Voluta) sp. 39, 
f. 51, 52, 53. 


Voluta rupestris, Gmel. 
fulminata, Lamk. 


Hab. Korea Strait. 


of Proboscidiferous Gasteropods. 429 


Genus Lyrta, Gray. 


1. L. nucleus, Lamk. (Voluta), Sow. Thes. Conch. ( Voluta) sp. 
Bit. 108. 


Hab. Tatiyama. 


2. L. casstdula, Rve., Sow. Thes. Conch. ( Voluta) sp. 63, f.130. 
Hab. Kino-O-Sima. 


Genus VoLUTOMITRA, Gray. 
V. pusilla, Schrenck (Voluta), Moll. Amur-Landes, pl. 17. 
15. 


y] 


Hab. Hakodadi Bay (Schr.). 


Fam. Cassidide. 
Genus Semicassis, Klein. 


S. japonica, Rve. (Cassis), Conch. Icon. sp. 23. 
Hab. Tatiyama, Tsusaki, 37 fathoms. 


Genus PHauium, Link. 


P. strigatum, Linn. (Buccinum), Syst. Nat. p. 3477; Rve. 
Conch. Icon. (Cassis) sp. 26. 
Buccinum rugosum, Gm. 
Cassis undata, Mart. 
zebra, Lamk. 
Cassidea areola, Brug. (not Linn.). 


Hab. Mososeki, 7 fathoms ; Seto-Uchi (Idsuma-Nada). 


Genus CasMARIA, H. & A. Ad. 

C. vibex, Linn. (Bucctnum), Syst. Nat. ed. 12. 

(Var.) B. erinaceus, Linn. 

Hab. 'Tatiyama. 

A large variety, with the outer lip not denticulate at the 
margin. 

Genus Morvum, Bolt. 
M. (Oniseidea) cancellatum, Sow. (Oniscia), Genera of Shells, 
gen. Oniscia, f. 1-3; Rve. Conch. Icon. sp. 4. 

Cassidaria cancellata, Kien (not Lamk.). 

Hab. Gotto, 71 fathoms. 

A variety, smaller, more pyriform, the inner lip more granu- 


lated, and the outer lip more reflexed and more lirate than the 
normal form. 


430 Mr. A. Murray on Coleoptera from Old Calabar. 


Fam. Doliide. 
Genus Dotium, Browne. 


D. australe, Chemn. (Buccinum), Rve. Conch. Icon. (Dolium) 
sp. 10. 
Buccinum chinense, Dillw. 
variegatum, Phil. (not Lamk.). 
D. Kieneri, Phil. 
In Japanese, “ Cimbu.”’ 


Hab. Hakodadi, Yokohama, Simoda. 


Genus LaGenA, Klein. 


1. L. clandestina, Chemn. (Murex), Lamk. An. s. Vert. vol. 
ix. p. 639. 
Triton clandestinus, Rve. Conch. Icon. sp. 13. 


Buceinum cincticulum, Meusch. 
Nept. doliata, Bolt. 


Hab, Kino-O-Sima. 
2. L. rostrata, Mart. (Dolium) pl. 3. f.'1083. 


Fusus cutaceus, Lamk. 
Cassidaria cingulata, Lamk. 
Tritonium undosum, Kien. 


Hab. Simidsu. 


Fam. Sycotypide. 
Genus Sycorypus, Browne. 


1. S. reticulatus, Lamk. (Pyrula), Hist. An. s. Vert. vol. ix. 
p- 510. 


Hab. Kuro-Sima. 


2. S. papyraceus, Say (Ficula). 
Hab. Kuro-Sima, Simoda, Satanomosaki. 


L.—List of Coleoptera received from Old Calabar, on the 
West Coast of Africa. By ANDREW Murray, F.L.S. 


[Continued from vol. ii. p. 111.} 


LONGICORNS. 


The Lamellicorns are the group which I meant to take 
next; but my friend M. Candéze, of Liége, who has latterly 
paid much attention to that group, having been kind enough 


Mr. A. Murray on Coleoptera from Old Calabar, 431 


to undertake the examination and description of the new spe- 
cies belonging to it, I entrusted my specimens of them to him 
for that purpese. His other engagements, however, have as 
yet prevented his carrying out his intention; and, after wait- 
ing for some time, I have come to the conclusion to postpone 
the Lamellicorns, and proceed at once with some other group, 
trusting that M. Candéze may be able to overtake them before 
Ihave done. Should he not, I shall then take them myself. I 
therefore now proceed with the Longicorns, which I take after 
the Buprestide, in preference to any other, on the strength of 
the general resemblance which the larve of these groups have 
to each other. In a list of this kind it matters little in what 
order the different larger groups are taken; each of them 
makes a little independent chapter by itself. 

In the arrangement of the Longicorns I have, of course, 
followed the steps of Prof. Lacordaire in the main; but in a 
number of minor details I have ventured to deviate from 
them ; and I do so now more than I have done hitherto, because 
it appears to me that the learned Professor has in none of his 
previous volumes sacrificed natural affinity to facility of refer- 
ence so much as in the Longicorns. In his last volumes he 
frequently acknowledges the artificial character of much of his 
arrangement. Now the natural relations are precisely the 
very thing that I am most anxious to elucidate in these papers. 
Throughout I have written them with one eye on the beetles 
themselves, and the other on their geographical distribution 
and their relations to the beetles of other countries. It 
would therefore be to stultify myself, and sacrifice one of the 
principal aims which I have in view in these descriptions, 
were I to bend to the greater authority of M. Lacordaire, and 
follow him in details of arrangement which are acknowledged 
by himself, or patent to all, to be inconsistent with the true 
natural affinities of the species themselves. The great defer- 
ence which is legitimately due, and which all entomologists 
must delight to pay, to the author of that wonderful work the 
‘Genera des Coléoptéres,’ forbids my acting in contradiction 
to his views without first making this apology. 

The greater number of my Old-Calabar Longicorns have 
been already described in Guérin’s ‘ Revue et Magasin de 
Zoologie,’ by my friend M. Chevrolat, who was kind enough 
to undertake that task years ago at my request. A reference 
to his descriptions would therefore, strictly speaking, be enough; 
but those who may use this list will probably be glad to have 
brought to their hand a summary of the characters of at least 
those species which were new. 


432 Mr. A. Murray on Coleoptera from Old Calabar. 


Parandride. 
PARANDRA, Latr. 


Parandra beninensis, Murr. Trans. Linn. Soc. 


Xxlil. p. 452 (1862), pl. 47. fig. 7a. 


Ferrugineo-fusca, punctata, punctis rugosis, oblongis vel qua- 
dratis seu angulatis. @ ignot. ¢ Capite fronte inter 
oculos tenuiter canaliculata medio foveolata utrinque elevata, 
antice transversim excavata ; clypeo prope oculos utrinque 
carinato, fere trilobato, lobo mediano obtuse subquadrato 
prominente ; mandibulis crassis, convexis, dentatis ; thorace 
transversim subquadrato, marginato, postice angustiore, 
fortius et rugosius utrinque antice punctato; utrinque bi- 
foveolato, fovea una versus medium posita, altera deltoidea 
ad basin; angulis anticis subquadratis vix_projicientibus, 
posticis obtusis, lateribus fere rectis; scutello glabro, im- 
punctato; ely tris subtricarinatis. Subtus mento rugoso 5 
metasterno et segmentis abdominis glabris, nitidis, haud 
punctatis, ad latera levissime subpapillosis, prosterni lateri- 
bus sparsim et parcissime et femoribus sat crebre leviter 
punctatis. 


Long 9 lin., lat. 3 lin. 


One specimen in my collection. 

There is another species of this genus, from Gaboon, de- 
scribed by M. Thomson under the name of P. gabonica (Arch. 
Ent. ii. 145), which corresponds with this in size and colour ; 
it is distinguished from it, however, by the form of the ante- 
rior angles of the thorax, which in P. beninensis scarcely 
project at all, and are subquadrate, while in the Gaboon spe- 
cies they project acutely, and the sides of the thorax are slightly 
rounded. It is, however, very nearly allied to it; and, from 
the point of view of geographical distribution, they cannot be 
regarded as other than climatal varieties of a representative of 
the American Parandras. 

The distribution of the genus is remarkable, and deserves 
attention ; for its character and facies are peculiar and well- 
marked, and the genus isolated and without allies or relations. 
So much is this the case that, although by very general con- 
sent it is placed among the Longicorns, heretics have from 
time to time appeared who think it ought either to be placed 
by itself or in other company, as the Cucujidee or Brenthide. 
Its isolation and well-marked facies are of special value in a 
geographical point of view. No doubts or difficulty as to the 
identity of the genus can occur; it may be an aberrant form 


Mr. A. Murray on Coleoptera from Old Calabar. 433 


itself, but we are not troubled with any aberrant forms of its 
own type. 

Lacordaire records thirty-five species of Parandra : of these, 
twenty-eight’ are American (viz. seven from North America, 
one from Mexico, three from the West Indies, thirteen from 
the Columbian district, including New Granada, Columbia, 
Venezuela, and Cayenne, and three from Brazil), four from 
Africa (viz. one from Old Calabar, one from Gaboon, and two 
from the Cape), one from the neighbourhood of the Caspian Sea, 
and two from New Caledonia. We have here, as I read the 
distribution, four, if not five, main localities, which either are 
now or have been at some former period separated from each 
other by important gaps ; and the question presents itself in 
as unmixed a form as can well be, Are we to suppose that the 
lands separated by these gaps were at some former period 
united, or is the wide distribution of Parandra due to acci- 
dental dispersal or ancient general distribution ? 

It seems to me that its preponderance in one country and 
extreme rarity elsewhere are adverse to the idea of its having 
originally been universally distributed. Where that explana- 
tion applies, as, for instance, in the ferns, both fossil remains 
and present distribution show the same typical forms in abun- 
dance in every quarter of the globe. But if we do not give it 
a general or universal distribution, we must fix on some one 
or more localities as its aboriginal site or centre of creation 
(using that term in a wide and liberal sense, and not con- 
founding with it the question of single or multiple original 
creations) ; and where we have twenty-eight species in one 


) . . 
region as against seven in all the rest, there seem grounds 


for holding that America was its aboriginal land, and 
New Granada or its neighbourhood the centre or starting- 
point of its distribution. ‘Thence there is no difficulty im 
assuming that it has spread, on the one hand, into North 
America, and, on the other, into Brazil. It will not be so 
readily admitted, but I believe it to be equally true, that it 
has reached West Africa from the Brazilian coast by former 
and very ancient continuity of land, in the same way that the 
other South-American types which we have found in Old 
Calabar have done, and thence in later times spread into 
the other parts of Africa; and by the same line that the Caf- 
frarian Adesmias have made their way into Mongolia, this 
genus also has spread to the Caspian Sea. From the other 
(the western) side of South America it may have in like man- 
ner spread, by former more or less interrupted continuity, to 
New Caledonia, as the genus Photophorus has carried repre- 
sentatives of the fireflies out of South America into these islands. 


434 Mr. A. Murray on Coleoptera from Old Calabar. 


Prionidz. 
Dorycera, White. 


Dorycera spinicornis, Fab.; White, Brit. Mus. Catal. Longi- 
corns, 1. p. 13, tab. 1. fig. 1 (1853) ; also figured by me in 
Trans. Linn. Soc. xxiii. tab. 47. fig. 8 a. 


Apparently rare in Old Calabar. 


This is another representative of a South-American form in 
Old Calabar. It has very much the appearance of Ortho- 
megas corticinus from Cayenne, but still more that of Polyoza 
Lacordairet, from Brazil. The former is placed near it by 
Lacordaire, but the latter is removed to a distance in an- 
other section. It seems to me that the natural affinities of 
all three are close together. I by no means desire to exalt 
one character to the disparagement, much less the exclusion, 
of others; but I must repeat the conviction I have long held 
and often urged, that surface and texture deserve much more 
attention than they usually receive as indications of natural 
affinity. If that test be applied here, it will bring together a 
number of opaque, sericeous-surfaced, depressed Prionidee dis- 
tinguished by large eyes, spined thorax, and flat or flabellate 
antenne, and in particular the American and West-African 
species I allude to, showing that Dorycera spinicornis is a 
West-African representative of a Brazilian natural group. 


MACROTOMA. 
1. Macrotoma palmata, Fab. Ent. Syst. 11. p. 249. 


Apparently rare at Old Calabar. 


The genus Macrotoma is confined to the Old World, and is 
most numerous in Africa; so is the whole family of Macro- 
tomide, with one exception, a single species forming a sepa- 
rate genus (Strongylaspis), which is found in Mexico and 
Cuba. Iam not disposed to refer its presence there to any 
communication between the west coast of Africa and South 
America; that communication took place (as I think I can 
show) before the union of Brazil with the rest of South America. 
And if Strongylaspis were an aberrant form of West-African 
Macrotoma which reached Mexico by filtration through Brazil, 
it should have left traces in Brazil, which do not exist, at 
least are not known. We know, however, that Mexico and 
some other parts of South America preserve traces of commu- 
nication with Madagascar (where Macrotoma also occurs); and 
I should rather be disposed to look there for the origin or 
connexion of Strongylaspis. 


My. A. Murray on Coleoptera from Old Calabar. 435 


2. Macrotoma senegalensis, Oliv. Ent. 66. p. 22. 
no. 21; ple?.fie. 25. -— 


Also rare at Old Calabar. 


MALLODON, Serv. 


Mallodon Downesi’, Hope, Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. 
ser. 1. vol. xi. p. 366. 


Tolerably abundant at Old Calabar. 


With the exception of one species peculiar to Arabia, part 
of which, for the purposes of geographical distribution, may be 
regarded as an appendage of Africa, the Mallodons are con- 
fined to America and Africa. The other African species are 
few in number, consisting of two from West Africa and one 
from Madagascar, while those in America are more numerous, 
lending force to the idea which other instances of the same 
nature have already suggested, that, while there has been a 
very considerable infusion of South-American blood into West 
Africa, there has been comparatively little return from Africa 
to South America. 


Cerambicide. 
PLOCADERUS, Thoms. 
1. Plocederus nitidipennis. 
Hammaticherus nitidipennis, Chevy. Rev. et Mag. Zool. 1858, p. 50. 


Alatus, niger, nitidus ; capite antice trinodoso, carinula sulcata 
inter oculos; antennis 1™° articulo elongato rubro, 2°-4™ 
nigris, sequentibus fuscis, planatis, angulatis; thorace 
transverso, valde polito, antice posticeque recto et bis pli- 
eato, angulo laterali medio valido obtuso; scutello opaco, 
semirotundato; elytris levissime punctulatis, glaberrimis, 
nitidissimis, viridibus, ad latera et basin igneo vel violaceo 
micantibus, subrecte parum truncatis; corpore nigrofus- 
cescente, leviter et in pectore dense pubescente, abdomine 
nitidiore ; femoribus (basi et apice exceptis) tibiisque in 
dimidia parte apicali rubris ; tarsis rufo-piceis. 

Long. 10-13 lin., lat. 34-4 lin. 

Black. Head with three tubercles in front and a small 
ridge between the eyes, which is grooved behind, retracted 
behind into a sort of transverse neck, bearing on that part an 
ill-defined punctation and transverse wrinkling. Antenne 
with the first article thick, elongated, rugose, red, obscure at 
the tip; second very small; third and fourth swollen at the 
extremity; all three black, those following brown, flattened 


436 Mr. A. Murray on Coleoptera from Old Calabar. 


and angular at the apex on the exterior side. Thorax trans- 
verse; disk large, depressed, only slightly convex, highly 
polished and finely punctate, straight in front, suddenly con- 
stricted and bearing two tubercles intermingled with two or 
three grooves ; base bisinuate, posterior angles feebly reflexed 
and acuminated ; there are two folds along the base following 
its bisinuation; lateral tubercle strong and obtuse, unequal 
above, and strongly impressed on the margin. Scutellum 
semicircular, blackish. Elytra broader than the thorax, 
three, or in some individuals even four and_a half, times as 
long, subparallel, slightly widened about two-thirds from the 
base, truncated slightly at the extremity; their surface is 
covered with a fine punctation, and is very smooth, gla- 
brous, and shining, of a fine brilliant green, which tums 
into a brilliant igneous or violet reflection on the sides and 
base; base depressed, shoulders prominent and rounded. 
Body below blackish brown, with transverse folds under the 
thorax, covered with a dense, short velvety pile, which, how- 
ever, is only slight on the breast, with the abdomen more 
shining, particularly on the margins of the segments. Thighs, 
with the exception of the base and apex and posterior half of 
the tibiz, ferruginous red; tarsi yellowish or rufous brown. 

This species resembles in its description the Hammaticherus 
glabricollis of Hope, but differs in various respects. The an- 
tenne and legs in glabricollis are described as reddish piceous ; 
and no mention is made of the very striking character the 
igneous or violet sides and base of the elytra. Nevertheless 
it may be the same as H. glabricollis; but as Hope says that 
he is acquainted with other metallic species from the same 
locality, I have less hesitation than I might otherwise have 
had in regarding it as distinct. It, as well as the next species, 
approaches, in the form of its antenne and the structure of its 
body, to the H. gigas and humeralis of White. 

The commonest species of this genus, but far from abun- 
dant. 

This type of Plocederus is peculiar to West Africa; and the 
nearest relations of the African species are the East-Indian, 


2. Plocederus chloropterus, Chevr. Rev. et Mag. d. 
Zool, 1856, p. 566. 

Niger, opacus ; palpis, antennis (1° articulo rubido, 5°-10™ sin- 
gulatim ad apicem angulosis et parum dilatatis, ultimo emar- 
ginato) pedibusque ferrugineis (geniculis obscuris) ; thorace 
transversim et recte plicato, in lateribus anticis nodoso, 
medioque sat valide tuberculato vel fere spinoso; scutello 
lanugine alba vestito; elytris thorace latioribus, convexius- 


Mr. A. Murray on Coleoptera from Old Calabar. 437 


culis, viridibus, crebre punctatis (fortiter versus basin, leviter 
versus apicem), alboque breviter setosis, apice recte trun- 

catis et externe et ad suturam dentatis; pectore cum abdo- 
mine dense cinereo-villosis. 


Long. 11-15 lin., lat. 8-4 lin. 


Opaque, black. Head keeled between the eyes, with very 
fine transverse folds behind. Palpi ferruginous. Antenne 
longer and more slender than in the preceding species, ferru- 
ginous, with the first article red and punctate, second and 
third nodulated at the tip, fifth to tenth elongated, depressed, 
somewhat dilated and angulated at the exterior tip, and ter- 
minal article elongate and obliquely emarginate at the apex. 
Thorax rather longer than broad, with transverse folds and 

oblique channels from the base on "each side of the disk, which 
turn in and unite about the middle, and then proceed in the 
dorsal line to the front, the whole producing a somewhat crown- 
shaped discal island; a strong tubercle on each side in front, 
followed by a larger one in the middle, terminating in a rather 


co) 

stout short spine. Scutellum triangular, without perceptible 
punctures, but bearimg a whitish velvety pile. Elytra broader 
than the thorax, convex, rounded subrectangularly on the out- 
side of the shoulder, parallel on the sides, becoming oblique 
towards the apex, and truncated at the extremity, “with the 
sutural and external angle sharp or toothed; they are broadly 
depressed at the base, bluish green, and, under the lens, very 
closely punctured (the punctures of different sizes, and some- 
times running into each other, forming rugose punctation) at 
the base, and very finely and sparsely punctured towards the 
apex, and from the punctures proceed a short silky pile. Legs 
ferruginous, obscure at the knees. Breast and abdomen 
brownish black, clothed with a tolerably thick ashy pile. 

I have a variety of larger size, coarser punctation, much 
larger and darker- coloured : antenne, elytra darker and not so 
blue, longer pile on the underside, and darker legs, but with- 
out any other distinction than an enlargement of all the 
details. 

In describing this species, M. Chevrolat drew attention to 
its resemblance to the Hammaticherus viridipennis of Tope, 
but remarked that it differed by its smaller size and by its 

‘lytra being convex instead of flattened. Specimens ‘sub- 
gently received, more particularly the large varicty above 
mentioned, show that no distinction can be drawn from the 
sige; Mr. "Hope. gives 12 lines as the size of his species, and 
that of my specimens ranges from 10 to 15: and the other 

oint of difference, that the elytra are flattened, is founded on 


Ann, & Mag. N. Hist. Ser, 4. Vol. v. 30 


438 Mr.J.Gwyn Jeffreys on Norwegian Mollusca. 


error; for Hope’s description says nothing about the elytra 
being flattened. All that he says regarding them is, “ Elytris 
viridibus, ad apicem abrupte truncatis et sub lente subtilissime 
punctatis.” In other pots my specimens agree with Mr. 
Hope’s description; but it is very short, and I cannot think he 
would have overlooked the comparatively strong punctation 
(under the lens) on the basal portion of the elytra, had it been 
present in his species. Certamly the description of the elytra 
as “subtilissime ’’ punctate under the lens does not apply to 
elytra which are so only towards the apex. My own antici- 
pation is that my species will turn out to be the same as 
Hope’s; but his description does not warrant my acting on this 
supposition. I find myself therefore constrained to follow the 
course taken by M. Chevrolat, and treat it as distinct until it 
- be shown to be the same. 

[To be continued. | 


LI.— Norwegian Mollusca. By J. Gwyn JErrvreys, F.R.S. 


A rew hours’ dredging last autumn at Drébak, in Christiania- 
fiord, produced results of such interest that I am induced to 
publish a list of the Mollusca which I then procured. Drébak 
is a “classical” place, in consequence of the discoveries made 
there, now almost a century ago, by that great zoologist, Otho 
Frederick Miiller. Dr.George Ossian Sars was my kind guide 
and companion, and assisted me in the work. ‘The depth at 
which we dredged was from 40 to 60 fathoms; and it was in 
some places so close to the shore that littoral species were 
mixed with those from deepish water. Dredging in a Nor- 
wegian fiord is a very different matter from dredging on the 
coasts of Great Britam. The former can be managed easily 
between breakfast and dinner, in an inland sea resembling a 
river, which is frequently as smooth as a mill-pond and has 
a considerable depth. In the middle of Sognefiord, and within 
a mile from the land, there is a depth of 661 fathoms. On the 
other hand the 100-fathom line is more than thirty miles from 
any part of our own coasts; and the open sea there is always 
more or less agitated, often rough, and sometimes dangerous. 
A list of the Christianiafiord Mollusca was published in 
1846 by Herr Asbjérnsen; and Dr. G. O. Sars has within the 
last month edited a further list, which was prepared by his 
lamented father shortly before his death. I should not have 
thought it necessary, or even have presumed, to offer the pre- 
sent contribution, except for the belief that a few remarks on 
certain species, especially with respect to their geographical 


Mr. J. Gwyn Jeffreys on Norwegian Mollusca. 439 


and bathymetrical distribution, might be useful. I may ob- 
serve that the deep-sea exploration last year in Her Majesty’s 
surveying steam-vessel the ‘ Porcupine,’ to which I shall pre- 
sently have occasion to refer, extended from 47° 30’ to 62° N, 
lat., and included “all our western and northern coasts. 

Those species to which an asterisk is prefixed are not im the 
lists either of Herr Asbjérnsen or of Professor Sars. 


BRACHIOPODA. 


TEREBRATULA CRANIUM, Miiller. British Conchology, 1. 
p- 11, and v. p. 163, pl. 19. f.1. Christianiafiord, 5-100 
fathoms; Poreupine Expedition, 114-632 f. 

T. CAPUT-SERPENTIS, Linné. B. C. ii. 14, and v. 164, pl. 19. 
f.2. C. 5-100 f.; P. 30-632 f. 

CRANIA ANOMALA, Mill. B.C. ii. 24, and v. 165, pl. 19. f. 6. 
C, 20-100 f.; P. 30-290 f. 


CONCHIFERA. 


ANOMIA EPHIPPIUM, L. B.C. ii. 30, and v. 165, pl. 20. f. 1. 
C. 5-100 f.; P. 10-557 f. 

A. PATELLIFORMIS, L. B. C. ii. 34, and v. 165, pl. 20. f. 2. 
C. 5-100 f.; P. 60-420 f. 

PECTEN SEPTEMRADIATUS, Mill. B.C. ii, 62, and v. 164; 
pl. 23. f.1. C. 20-230f.; P. 90-664 f. 

P. tierNus, Mull. ~ B. C. ii. 65, and v. 167, pl. 23. f.2. ©, 
10-100 f.; P. 64-420 f. 

P. Test#, Bivona. B.C. ii. 67, and v. 167, pl. 23. f. 3. 
C. 10-100 f.; P. 30-164 f. 

P. striatus, Mill. B.C. ii. 69, and v. 168, pl. 23. £4. C. 
10-100 f.; P. 66-420 f. 

P. smmiuis, Laskey. B.C. ii. 71, and v. 168, pl. 23. f.5. C. 
40-140 f.; P. 40-420 f. 

P. virreus, Chemnitz, and var. abyssorum. B.C. v. 168, 

- pl. 99. £6. C. 20-230 f.; P. 208-604 f. 

P. araTus, Gmelin. B.C. 11. 64, and v. 167, pl. 99. f. 5. 
GC. 20-60 £.; P, 155-345 f. 

LIMA ELLIPTICA, Jeffreys. B. C. ii. 81, and v. 169, pl. 25. f. 2. 
C. 12-100 f.; P. 114-208 f. 

L. SUBAURICULATA, Montagu. B.C. ii. 82, and v. 169, pl. 25. 
f£,3. C.10-60f.; P. 125-1448 f. 

L. Loscomsn, G. B. Sowerby. B. C. ii. 85, and v. 170, pl. 25. 
f.4. C.5-100f.; P. 64-75 f. 

L. excavata, Fabricius. C.10-140f.; fossil? 

Myvizus epuis, L. B.C. ii, 104, and v. 171, pl. 27. f: 1. 

30* 


440 Mr. J. Gwyn Jeffreys on Norwegian Mollusca. 


The young only were dredged ; and these had probably been 
removed from the shore by the waves or tide, and carried 
out into the fiord. 

MYTILUS PHASEOLINUS, Philippi. B. C. 11. 118, and v. 171, 
pl. 27. £.5. C.15-120f.; P. 30-110 f. 

MoDIOLARIA MARMORATA, Forbes. B.C. 11. 122, and v. 171, 
pl 28. £. 1, AC. 10-80 fs P. 15-307. 

Nucua sutcata, Bronn. B. C. ii. 141, and v. 172, pl. 29. 
f.1. C.15-100f,; P. 15-208 f. 

N. nuctevus, L. B.C. ii. 148, and v. 172, pl. 29. £.2. C.5- 
60 f.; P. 10-1180 f. 

N. rumiputa, Malm,=N. pumila, Lovén, MS. (N. nucleus, B, 
in Ind. Moll. Seand.). C. 40-230 f.; P. 420-1476 f. It 
seems that I was mistaken in referring Malm’s species to a 
variety of NV. nucleus, although his description may apply as 
well to that variety as to the present species. NV. proaima 
of Say is allied to it. 

*N. DELPHINODONTA, Mighels & Adams. C. 60 f.; P. 290- 
345 f. Gulf of St. Lawrence to Casco Bay, Maine. Mr. 
M‘Andrew dredged it in upper Norway. 

LepA pyGM@a, Miinster. B.C. ii. 154, and v. 173, pl. 29. £.5. 
C. 10-100 f.; P. 40-1180 f. 

L. minutTA, Mill. B. C. ii. 155, and v. 173, pl. 29. f. 6. 
C. 10-100 f.; P. 40-420 f. 

L. Lucipa, Lov. B.C. v. 173, pl. 100. f. 1. C. 20-280 f. ; 
P. 114-1268 f. 

L. Fria, Torell = Yoldia nana, Sars. C. 20-230 f.; P. 
165-1380 f. Iwas wrong in believing that this distinct 
species might be a dwarf variety of L. lucida. Prof. 'Torell 
described and figured it in his account of the Spitzbergen 
Mollusca; it is also Greenlandic. 

ARCA PECTUNCULOIDES, Scacchi. B. C. ii. 171, and v. 175, 
pl. 30. f. 8. C.30-100 f. ; P. 66-422 f. 

mA OLACTALIS, Gray. “B. GC. 0.178. (O.60'f.,: fossil? (oP. 
290-420 f. 

*AvoRLigua, Ph, ByO;- 0. 175;-and-9.5175, piso. a: 
C. 60 f.; P. 164-422 f. 

A. NopuLosA, Mill. B.C. i. 180, and v. 176, pl. 100. f. 2. 
C. 10-60 f.; P. 155-363 f. 

LEPTON NITIDUM, Turton. B. C, 1. 198, and v. 177, pl. 31. 
f.3. C. 40-60 f. 

MONTACUTA SUBSTRIATA, Mont. B. C. ii. 205, and v. 177, 
pl. 81. f.6. C. 2-100 f.; P. 73-420 f. 

*M. BIDENTATA, Mont. B.C. ii. 208, and v. 177, pl. 31. f. 8. 
C. 40-100 f., and var. triangularés ; P. 38-1366 f. 

*M. Dawsonl, Jeffr. B.C. 1, 216, and y. 178, pl. 31. f. 7. 


My. J. Gwyn Jeflreys on Norwegian Mollusca. 441 


C. 40-60 f. ; P. 30-40 f. Greenland (Moller) ; Spitzbergen 
(Torell). 

*MONTACUTA TUMIDULA, Jefir. B.C. v. 177, pl. 100. £.5. C, 
40-60 f. 

KELLIA SUBORBICULARIS, Mont. B.C. i. 225, and v. 179, 
pl. 32. f.2. ©. 10-60 f.; P. 10-164 f. 

AXINUS FLEXUOSUS, Mont. B.C. ii. 247, and v. 179, pl. 33. 
f.1. C. 10-230 f., and var. Sarst’?; P. 8-557 f. 

A. CROLINENSIS, Jefir. B.C. ii. 250, and v, 180, pl. 33, 
f.2. C. 40-23 30 f.; P. 90-1476 f. 

A. EUMYARIUS, Sars. C, 40-230 f. 

A. FERRUGINOSUS, Forb. B.C. ii. 251, and v. 180, pl. 33. £. 3, 
C. 50-230 f. ; P. 40-557 f. 

CarpiuM ECHIN. ATUM, L. 3B. C. ii. 270, and v. 181, pl. 34, 
f.2. C.10-80f.; P. 15-114 f, 

C. rascraTuM, Mont. B.C. ii. 281, and v. 181, pl. 35. f. 3. 
C. 10-180 f.; P. 80-75 f. 

C. EDULE, L. B.C. ii. 286, and v. 182, pl. 35. £5. C.0-50f., 
in the latter case young and probably drifted; P. 3 f. 

C.. minrmum, Ph. B. C. ii. 292, and v. 182, pl. 35. f.6. C. 
10-100 f.; P. 15-542 f. 

Isocarpia cor, L. B.C. ii. 298, and v. 182, pl. 36. f.1. C. 
20-230 f.; P. 106-1380 f. I have a complete and con- 
necting series, from the adult to the fry or very young, 
which proves that the latter is the Wellia abyssicola ot 
Forbes, Venus miliaris of Philippi, and Kelliella abyssicola 
of Sars. Typical specimens of all these so-called species 
are now before me. The fry swarm in myriads on 
the surface of the mud in deep water. ‘The adults bury 
themselves in the mud beyond the reach of a light dredge, 
such as 1s generally used in the Norwegian fiords : seat they 
may be seen, in a fossil state, imbedded in the brick- clay 

1ear Christiania. In its earliest state the shell has none of 
the fine pone epidermis which clothes it at a later period. 
The remarks of Prof. Sars on the differences observable im 
the animal and shell of Jsocardia cor and his Kelliella 
abysstcola are pertectly correct ; but such differences result 
from altered conditions of growth. Some of I orbes’s 
/Hgean specimens named by him Aelia abyssicola belong 
to Axtnus ferruginosus, and others to the present species ; 
his description will suit either. 

Cyprina Isitanpica, L. B.C. 11. 304, and v. 182, pl. 36. f. 2. 
C. 15-60 f.; P. 12-40 f. 

ASTARTE SULCATA, Da Costa. B.C. ii. 311, and v. 183, pl. 37. 
f.1. C.20-120f.; P.15-420f. 

A. COMPRESSA, Mont. B.C, i. 315, and y, 183, pl. 37. f, 3, 
C, 40-100 f.; P. 40 f, 


442 Mr.J.Gwyn Jeffreys on Norwegian Mollusca. 


VENUS OVATA, Pennant. B. C. ii. 342, andy. 184, pl. 39. f. 1. 
C. 10-100 f.; P. 10-1366 f. 

TELLINA CALCARIA, Ch. B.C. ii, 889, and v.. 187. C. 0- 
40 f.; P. 40-345 f. 

*Mactra SuBTRUNCATA, Da C. B. C. ii. 419, and v. 188, 
pl. 43. f.3. C. 40-60 f.; P. 15-1366 f. 

ScROBICULARIA NITIDA, Mill. B. C. ii. 436, and v. 189, 
pl. 45. f.2. C. 20-230 f.; P. 3-2485 f. Living at the 
last-mentioned depth, as well as at 2090 f. 

*LYONSIA ARENOSA, Méller (Pandorina). C.40f. Green- 
land (Miller) ; Wellington Channel (Belcher) ; Spitzbergen 
(Torell) ; Upper Norway (M‘Andrew). 

THRACIA PAPYRACEA, Poli. B. C, iii. 36, and v. 191, pl, 48. 
f.4. C.10-60f.; P. 64-164 f. 

*T. TRUNCATA, Brown. B.C. ii. 43. C. 40f., fossil ? 

NERA ABBREVIATA, Forb. B.C. iii. 48, and v. 191, pl. 49. 
f.2. C.40-120f.; P. 165-183 f. 

N. COSTELLATA, Deshayes. DB. C. iii. 49, and v. 191, pl. 49. 
f. 3. C. 10-100 f.; P. 96-664 f. 

N. rostrata, Spengler. B.C. i. 51, and v. 191, pl. 49. f. 4. 
C. 10-100 f.; P. 85-183 f. 

N. opesa, Lov. C. 40-230 f.; P. 125-2435 f. Living at the 
last-mentioned depth. My reference of this species to N. 
cuspidata (B. C. v. 192) was erroneous: I am now satisfied 
that they are distinct. 

CorBULA GIBBA, Olivi. B.C. iii. 56, and v. 192, pl. 99. f. 6. 
C. 3-100 f., and var. rosea, dwarfed; P. 3-1476 f. 

Mya truncata, L. B.C. iti. 66, and v. 192, pl. 50. f.2. C. 
0-40 f.; P. 38-66 f. In the last case apparently fossil, and 
belonging to the variety wddevallensis. 

PANOPEA PLICATA, Mont. B.C. ii. 875, and v. 192, pl. 51. 
£1. C.20-l00f; P. 15-33 f, 

SAXICAVA RUGOSA, L., var. arctica. B.C. iii. 82, and v. 192, 
pl. 51. f.4. C.8-100f.; P. 15-420 f. 

XYLOPHAGA DORSALIS, Turt. B.C. iii. 120, and v. 193, pl. 53. 
f.4, C.10-60f.; P.364f Not living in the last case, 
the shell having probably been dropped from floating wood. 


SOLENOCONCHIA. 


SIPHONODENTALIUM LOFOTENSE, Sars. B.C. v. 395, pl. 101. 
f.2. C.40-200f.; P. 30-1180 f. 

S. QUINQUANGULARE, Forb. C. 40-300; P. 40-725 f. 

CADULUS SUBFUSIFORMIS, Sars. B.C. v. 196, pl. 101. f. 3. 
C. 40-230 f.; P. 114-1180 f. 

DENTALIUM ENTALIS, L. B.C. ui. 191, and v. 197, pl. 55. f.1. 
C, 10-100 f., and var. ¢nfundibulum; P. 15-664 f. 


Mr. J. Gwyn Jeffreys on Norwegian Mollusca. 443 


DENTALIUM ABYSSORUM, Sars._ B. C. iii. 197, and v. 197, pl. 
101.f,1. C,.30-230f; P. 90-1476 f. 


GASTROPODA. 


Cuiron Haney, Bean. B. C. iii. 215, and v. 198, pl. 55..5. 
C. 25-60 f. P. 80-345 f. 

C. CANCELLATUS (Leach ?), G. B. Sowerby, jun., = C. alveolus, 
Sars, B.C, 11. 217, and v. 198, pl. 56.1.1. C, 25-60 f. 
C, cinereus, L. B.C. iii, 218, and v. 198, pl. 56. f. 2. G. 5- 

100 f.; P, 10-40 f. 

C, aupus, L. 8B, C, iii. 220, and y. 199, pl. 56. f.3., ©. 10- 
60 f, 

*C, RUBER (L.), Lowe. B. C. iii. 224, and v. 199, pl. 56. f. 4. 
C. 50-100 f. 

TECTURA TESTUDINALIS, Mill, B, C. i. 246, and v. 20%, 
pl. 58. £3. C.0-40f. 

T. vircinea, Mill. B.C. i. 248, and v. 200, pl. 58. f. 4. 
C. 0-100 f.; P.10f. 

T. Frutva, Mill. B.C. ii. 250, and v. 200, pl. 58. f. 5. C. 
10-140 f.; P. 15-90 f. 

Lepeta cmos, Mull. B.C. iti. 252, and v. 200, pl. 58. f. 6. 
C. 0-100 f. 

*PROPILIDIUM ANCYLOiDES, Forb. B. C. iii. 254, and. v. 200, 
pl. 58. £7. C. 40-60 f.; P. 90-1366 f. 

*PISSURISEPTA PAPILLOSA, Seguenza (Annali dell’ Accademia 
degli Aspiranti Naturalisti, 3 serie, vol. 11. 1862, t. iv. f. 2, 
22, 2>). I dredged at Drébak three specimens of this extra- 
ordinary species; all were dead, and have a fossilized ap- 
pearance. The shell is conical, with a round hole at the 
apex and an internal plate or septum, thus forming a link 
between Propilidium and Fissurella. Prof. Seguenza dis- 
covered it, with Puncturella noachina, Hmarginula crassa, 
and other northern species, in what he considers the upper 
strata of the Miocene formation, at Rometta, near Messina ; 
and he most obligingly presented me with specimens, which 
I have now had the unexpected opportunity of comparing 
with those from Norway. If this formation at Rometta be 
really Miocene, the occurrence of /ssurisepta papillosa at 
Drébak, whether in a living or fossil state, 1s very wonderful. 

PUNCTURELLA NOACHINA, L. B.C. i. 257, and v. 200, pl. 59. 
f.1. C.10-60f.; P. 15-420 f. 

EMARGINULA FissurA, L. B, C. ii. 259, and v. 230, pl. 59 
f.2. C. 20-60f., and var. incurva; P. 10-420 f. 

E. crassa, J. Sowerby. B.C. iii. 263, and v. 200, pl 59 f. 4 
C. 10-100 f.; P. 90-155 f. 


444 Mr. J.Gwyn Jeffreys on Norwegian Mollusca. 


CAPULUS HUNGARICUS, L.. B.C. i. 269, and v. 201, pl. 59: 
f.6. C.5-60f.; P. 30-180 f. 

SCISSURELLA CRISPATA, Fleming. B. C. iii. 283, and v. 201, 
pl. 60. £3. CO. 40-120 f.; P.164—725f. As I suspected, 
S. angulata of Lovén is a large form of this species. The 
animal not having been sufliciently described, I subjoin an 
extract from my notes :— 


Bopy milk-white, with a tinge of yellowish brown in 
front: head thick, snout-shaped: tentacles conical, ciliated : 
eyes small, one at the outer base of each tentacle: foot 
double-edged and bilobate in front, abruptly pointed behind; 
its tail or extremity is pinched up and grooved underneath : 
appendages or pedal filaments as in 7rochus, but more nu- 
merous (eight on each side) ; these are angulated and finely 
ciliated ; a white eye-spot is at the base of each filament. 
The slit in the shell serves for excretal purposes ; the feces 
are worm-shaped, long, and are visible through the shell. 
The animai is shy and delicate, dying soon after being put 
in a phial of sea-water. 


TRocHUS TUMIDUS, Mont. B.C. i. 307, and v. 203, pl. 62. 
f.2. C.10-100f.: P. 10-85 f. 

T. cINERARIUS, L. B.C. iii. 309, and v. 203, pl. 62. f. 3. 
C. 10-60 f.: P. 0-10 f. 

T. MILLEGRANUS, Ph. B.C. iii. 325, and v. 204, pl. 63. f. 4. 
C. 10-100 f.; P. 90-190 f. Live specimens from the last 
depth were prettily spotted. 

LAcuUNA DIVARICATA, Fabricius. B. C. i. 846, and v. 204, 
pl. 64. f. 38. C. 5-100 f., drifted into deeper water; P. 0-3 f. 

Lirrorina rupis, Maton. 3B. C. i. 364, and v. 206, pl. 65. 
f.3. C.0-80f., drifted from the shore; P. 0. 

L. uiroresA, L. B.C. i. 368, and v. 206, pl. 65. f.4. ©. 0- 
80 f., drifted; P. 0. 

*RISSOA RETICULATA, Mont. B.C. iv. 12, and v. 207, pl. 66. 
f.5. C. 40-60 f. 

*R. CIMICOIDES, Forb. B.C. iv. 14, and v. 207, pl. 66. f. 6. 
C. 40-60 f.; P. 90-422 f. 

*R, JEFFREYSI, Waller. B.C. iv. 15, and v. 207, pl. 66. f. 7. 
C. 40-100 f.; P. 183 f. 

KR, punctura, Mont. ve Cy iv. 1%,:and .. 207, pl.G6an8: 
C. 0-100 f.; P. 25-33 

R. ABYSSICOLA, Forb. B. C. iv. 19, and v. 207, pl. 66. f. 9. 
C. 40-230 f.; P. 165 f. 

R. ZETLANDICA, Mont. B.C. iv. 20, and v. 207, pl. 67. f. 1. 
©. 30-60 f.; P. 208-808 f. 

Ki. parva, DaC., and var, cnterrupta, B.C. iv. 23, and v. 207, 


Mr. J. Gwyn Jeffreys on Norwegian Mollusca. 445 


pl. 67. f. 3,4. C. 0-100 f., probably drifted from low-water 
mark; P. 0-10 f. 

R. rnconspicua, Alder. B.C. iv..26, and v. 207, pl. 67. f. 5. 
C.@-100-t.5) Pod f: 

*R. TURGIDA, Jeffreys. 


SHELL forming a short cone, rather thin, nearly transpa- 
rent, and glossy: sculpture consisting of extremely delicate 
and close-set spiral striae (which are microscopic), and a very 
fine but conspicuous thread-like marking round the pert- 
phery: colour white: spire bluntly pointed: whorls five, 
tumid; the last occupies three-fourths of the spire: suture 
deep: mouth roundish: outer lip thin: ¢nner lip filmy, and 
scarcely perceptible: umbilical chink narrow but distinct: 
operculum ear-shaped, with a very small spire and strong 
flexuous lines of growth. L. 0°075, B. 0°05. 

Allied to R. tnconspicua; but the difference will appear 
by a comparison of the description of each. 

Not uncommon at Drébak and Vallé, from 40 to 100 f. 
Owing to my not being provided with proper sieves, I did 
not at the time detect this small species in the dredged ma- 
terial; and therefore I could not observe the animal. I 
would again venture to protest against the division of Rissoa 
into several genera, such as Alvania and Cingula, without a 
single distinctive character being established. It is cer- 
tainly not a scientific mode of classification, But naturalists 
must please themselves ! 


*HYDROBIA ULV, Penn. B. C. iv. 52, and v. 208, pl. 69. f. 1. 
C. 40-100 f., probably drifted; P.3f., and var. Barleei, 
1366 f., living, but possibly also drifted. 

H. ventrosa, Mont. B.C.1. 52, and v. 152, pl. 4. f. 7. This, 
with several land- and freshwater shells, were dredged in 
deep water; but they were dead, and had evidently been 
carried into the fiord by streams. 

Cacum GLABRUM, Mont. B.C. iv. 77, and v. 209, pl. 70. f. 5. 
C. 40-100 f. 

TURRITELLA TEREBRA, L. B.C. iv. 80, and v. 209, pl. 70. f.6. 
C. 5-80 f.; P. 10-422 f. 

ScALARIA TREVELYANA, Leach. B. C. iv. 93, and v. 209, 
pl. 71.f.4. C.40-100f.; P. 10-458 f. 

* AcLtIs WALLERI, Jeffr. B.C. iv. 105, and v. 210, pl. 72. f, 4. 
C. 40-60 f. ; P. 422-1880 f. 

ODOSTOMIA CLAVULA, Lov. B.C. iv. 118, and v. 211, pl. 73. 
f.1. C. 40-60 f.; P. 25-40 f. 

O. rissoipes, Hanley. 3B, C. iv. 122, and v. 211, pl. 73. f. 4. 
C, 80-100 f. 


446 Mr.J.Gwyn Jeffreys on Norwegian Mollusca. 


*OpOSTOMIA CONOIDEA, Brocchi. B. C. iv. 127, and v. 211, 
pl. 73.f.6. C.40-100f.; P. 25-208 f. 

QO. acuta, Jeffr. B.C. iv..130, and v. 211, pl. 73. f. 8. C. 
40-120 f. 

O. UNIDENTATA, Mont. B.C. iv. 184, and v. 214, pl. 74. f. 1. 
C. 80-100 f.; P. 80-40 f. 

#O, Turrita, Hanl, B.C, iv. 135, and v. 211, pl. 74, f, 2. 
C, 40-60 f. 

O. inscuLpTa, Mont. B.C. iv. 139, and v. 211, pl. 74, f, 4. 
C. 30-100 f. 

*O, WarRENI, Thompson. B, C, iv. 143, and v. 212, pl. 102. 
f. 2. C. 40-100 f. 

O, SPIRALIS, Mont. B.C. iv. 154, and v. 2138, pl. 75. f. 3. 
C. 10-60 f. 

QO, pximiA, Jeffr. B,C. iv. 155, and vy. 213, pl. 75. f.4.  C. 
30-100 f.; P. 420f. The Norwegian are larger than 
British specimens, aud have a more conspicuous tooth. 

Q. SCALARIS, Ph., var. rufescens. B.C. iv. 160, and y. 218, 
pl. 75. f.7. C. 10-80f. 

O, RuFA, Ph., var. fulvocincta. B. C. iv. 162, and vy. 213, 
pl. 76.f.2. C.20-100f.; P. 25-208 f. 

*QO, ScitLz, Scacchi. B. C. iv. 169, and v. 213, pl. 76. f. 5. 
C, 40-60 f., fossil? ; P. 25-370 f. 

O, AcicuLA, Ph., and var. ventricosa. 3B. C. iv. 170, and v. 
213, pl. 76. f.6,7. C.380-100f.; P. 25-1366 f. 

*HULIMA POLITA, L. B. C. iv. 201, and v. 214, pl. 77. £, 3. 
C. 40-60 f., fossil ? 

Ki. INTERMEDIA, Cantraine. B. C. iv. 203, and v. 214, pl. 77. 
f.4. €. 380-100 f. 

E. pistorta, Desh., and var. gracilis. B.C. iv. 205, and v. 
214, pl. 77. £.5. C.40-100f.; P. 15-164 f. 

E. stenostoma, Jefir. B.C. iv. 207, and v. 215, pl. 77. f. 6. 
CG. 40-280 f.; P. 64-290 f. 

EK. pruingeata, Ald. B. C. iv. 210, and v. 215, pl. 77. £. 8. 
C. 25-60 f.; P. 40-422 f. Living specimens from the last 
depth had the usual bright-coloured bands, and their animals 
very distinct eyes. 

*NATICA GRENLANDICA, Beck. B.C. iv. 216, and v. 215, 
pl. 78. f. 2. C. 40-60 f., fossil?; P. 173-725 f. 

N. Aubert, Forb. B. C. iv. 224, and v. 215, pl. 78. f. 5. 
C. 15-100 f.; P. 10-420 f. 

N. Montacuti, Forb. B.C. iv. 227, and v. 215, pl. 78. f. 6. 
C. 15-120 f.; P. 30-584 f. 

N. AFFINIS, Gm. B. C. iv. 229, and v. 215, pl. 102. f 3. 
C. 40-120 f.; P. 203-664 f. 

VELUTINA LHEVIGATA, Penn. B.C. iv. 240, and -v. 216, pl. 79. 
f,4, C. 10-100 f. 


Mr. J. Gwyn Jeffreys on Norwegian Mollusca, 447 


ADMETE VIRIDULA, Fabr. BwC. iv. 248, and v. 216. C. 20- 
230 f.; P. 114-420 f. 

APoRRHAis Prs-PELECANI, L. B.C. iv. 250, and v. 216, 
pl. 80. f.1. OC. 5-100 f.; P. 10-422 f. 

CERITHIUM METULA, Lov. B.C. iv. 256, and v. 217, pl. 80. 
f.8. ©. 30-100 f.; P. 114-862 f. 

C. RETICULATUM, DaC. B.C. iv. 258, and v. 217, pl. 80. f. 4. 
C. 20-100 f.; P. 3-74 f. - 

C, Perversum, L. B. C. iv. 261, and v. 217, ph 80. f. 5. 
C.10-70f. From Prof. Mébius’s notes and drawing, which 
he was so good as to show me at Kiel, it appears that the 
animal differs considerably from that of Cerithtum, parti- 
cularly in respect of the foot and odontophore. I would 
consequently adopt the genus Zriforts of Deshayes for this 
species. 

*CERITHIOPSIS COSTULATA, Méll. B.C. iv. 272, and v. 217, 
pl. 81. £5. C.40-60f., fossil?; P. 18-420 f. 

Buccinum unpatum, L., and var. zeélandica. B.C. iv. 285, 
and vy. 218, pl. 82. f. 2,5. C. 0-60f.;.P. 30-1807. 

TROPHON BARVICENSIS, Johnston. B.C. iv. 318, and v. 218, 
pl. 84. f.5. C. 30-230f.; P. 15-458 f. 

T. cuatHratus, L. B. 0. iv. 3821. C. 20-60 f.; P. 155= 
507 f. 

T. Mércut, (Morchit) Malm, = Bela demersa, Tiberi. C.30- 
230 f.; Corsica (Tiberi)! Sars placed this remarkable little 
shell in the genus Plewrotoma; but it has no fissure or notch, 
and the apex is that of Zrophon. It, however, wants an 
operculum, the canal is very short, and the sculpture is 
peculiar, so that it may constitute the type of a new genus, 
say Taranist. This is truly one of the “ sea’s rich gems.” 

NASSA RETICULATA, L. B. C. iv. 346, pl. 87. £3. C. 2-708; 
| a i 

DEFRANCIA LINEARIS, Mont. B. C. iv. 368, and v. 220, 
pl. 89. f. 2.) C. 10-60 f.; P. 13-173 £. 

PLEUROTOMA COsTATA, Donovan. B. C. iv. 379, and v. 220, 
pl 90, ta.) CL 10-100 3 Py LO-208 5. 

*P. BRAcHYysToMA, Ph. B.C. iv. 382, and vy. 220, pl. 90. 
f.5. C.50-100f.; P. 15-40 f. 

P. nIvALIS, Lov. B. C. iv. 388, and yv. 220, pl. 91.f.4. C. 
40-120 f.; P. 155-422 f. 

P. TURRICULA, Mont. B. C. iv. 395, and v. 222, pl. 91. £. 7. 
C. 30-120 f.; P. 10-130 f. 

P. TREVELYANA, Turt. B.C. iv. 398, and v. 222, pl. 91. f. 8. 
C. 6-60 f. 

+ The name of a heathen god. See Wordsworth’s ‘Excursion,’ 9th 

book, p. 340. 


448 Myr.J.Gwyn Jetireys on Norwegian Mollusca. 


PLEUROTOMA MITRULA (Zritontum), Lov.,=P. cylindracea 

Mller) ?, var. alba, Sars. C. 40-100 f. 

*P, DECLIVIS (Zritontum), Lov. C. 20-100 f.; P. 64-420 f. 

CYLICHNA ACUMINATA, Bruguiére. B. C. iv. 411, and v. 
222, pl. 93. f. 1. C. 20-80 f.; P. 25-40 f. Sars has de- 
scribed and figured the animal as having separate, long, 
leaf-like tentacles (folded back on the sides of the shell in 
front), with minute eyes at their outer bases; and the foot 
is not expanded laterally or behind. This species must be 
placed in the genus Rhdzorus of De Montfort, or Volvula 
of A. Adams. 

*C. NITIDULA, Lov. B.C. iv. 412, and v. 222, pl. 93. f. 2. 
C. 40-100 f.; P. 25-40 f. 

C. ALBA, Brown. B. C. iv-417, and v. 228, pl. 93. £.6.  C. 
10-120 f.; P. 203-1366 f. 

UTRICULUS TRUNCATULUS, Brug. B. C. iv. 421, and v. 223, 
pl. 94. f. 2. C. 11-80 f. 

U. expansus, Jeffry. B.C. iv. 426, and v. 223, pl. 94. f. 6. 
C. 40-120 f.; P. 165 f. 

U. nyawinus, Turt. B.C. iv. 427, and v. 2238, pl. 94. f. 7. 
C. 40-60 f.; P. 25-38 f. 

U. axososus, Lov.,= Utriculopsis vitrea, Sars. B.C. v. 223, 
pl. 102. f. 8. C.30-120f.; P.542f. ‘The spire is visible 
in young, but sunken and nearly concealed in full-grown 
specimens. 

ACTON TORNATILIS, L. B.C. iv. 483, and v. 224, pl. 95. 
f.2. C. 10-60 f.; P. 13-420 f. 

SCAPHANDER LIBRARIUS, Lov. B. C. iv. 446, and v. 224, 
pl. 102. f. 9.. C. 40-140 f.; P. 290-1268 f. 

PuILINE scaBRA, Mill. B.C. iv. 447, and v. 224, pl. 96. 
f.1. C.10-140f.; P. 25-542. 

P. quADRATA, 8. Wood. B. C. iv. 452, and v. 224, pl. 96. 
f. 4. C. 80-230 f.; P. 420-1215. 

P. puncTaTa, Clark. B.C. iv. 453, and v. 224, pl. 96. f. 5. 
C, 30-60 f. 

PTEROPODA. 

SPIRIALIS RETROVERSUS, Flem. B. C. v. 115, pl. 98. f. 4. 
C. 40-100 f.; P. 25-173 f. In all these cases dropped 
from the surface of the sea, or voided by fishes and oceanic 
Hydrozoa. 


Besides the Mollusca, Foraminifera abounded in great 
variety ; these I have placed in the excellent charge of Dr. 
Carpenter. I also found some sponge-spicules, which Dr. 
Bowerbank tells me belong to Geodia Barretti, an undescribed 
species, 


449 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


On Anthozoanthus parasiticus, Deshayes, MS. (Algiers.) 
By H. J. Carrer, F.R.S. (In a letter to Dr. J. E. Gray.) 


Tuts coral is figured, but not described, in Schleiden, ‘ Das Meer,’ 
fig. 4. 

Spicules calcareous, fusiform, tuberculated, some narrow, others 
thick, variable in length; the longest of the former 1-90th, the 
longest of the latter 1-180th of an inch ; the narrow ones chiefly con- 
fined to the polypes, arranged obliquely (?) and parallel, embracing ; 
the thicker ones arranged horizontally (?), interlocking with each 
other, as if formed in cells of this shape originally interlocking with 
each other; composing the greater part of the mass or cortex, which 
is parasitic upon a small, horny, branched stem. 

As the narrow spicules are chiefly confined to the polypes, so 
these are the spicules which are chiefly coloured—red and yellow 
mixed in one of the specimens (the red-), and yellow only in the other 
(the yellow-polyped specimen), the red and yellow colours of their 
points respectively being thus produced. 

The tubercles on the narrow fusiform spicules are more or less 
evenly scattered over the surface (A), from one end to the other, while 
those of the thicker ones are arranged in three or more bands or 


rings, with plain intervals or rings (8) between them constricted ; 
or the tubercles may be arranged irregularly throughout the shaft 
(c), whose extremities are also always tuberculated. 

The two specimens, viz. the red- and yellow-polyped, are the 
same species. 

It seems to me that the longer fusiform spicules generally run up 
round the polype, perhaps obliquely extending into the base of the 
tentacles. 


Notes on Myriosteon. By H.J. Carrer, F.RS. 
(In a letter to Dr. J. E. Gray.) 


T can find no note in my journal of the piece of Myriosteon I 
took out from a Ray’s nose on the south-east coast of Arabia— 


450 Miscellaneous. 


nothing but mention of a set of placoid teeth, upper and under, of 
a species of Myliobatis, which I remember to have extracted from 
the remnants of another old dried Ray on the beach at the same time, 
and which I finally deposited in Prof. Huxley’s hands in the Museum 
of Economic Geclogy. What became of the piece of Myriosteon I 
have forgotten altogether. 

But that it did come from the snout of a Ray, and not of a Pristis, 
the little preparation I now send you seems to confirm. 

In this preparation (taken from a young Thornback, which I 
found on the beach at Budleigh-Salterton on the 12th May) you 
will see your Myriosteon in miniature. 

If you hold it up between you and the light, you will see, halfway 
up, on its surface the radiated osselet structures with a common 
lens, and with a higher power the veritable osselet structure of 
your Myriosteon. 

Now, if ‘you look into the cavity of the cranium (a portion of 
which still adheres to the snout), you will observe that this cavity 
is continued on into the Myriosteon; and a little imagination will 
enable you to see that this cavity represents the cribriform plate of 
the ethmoid bone prolonged into a conical tube, the holes of which, 
for the issue of the olfactory nerves, may be the holes which exist 
on each side of your Myriosteon Higginsii. 


Geographical Distribution of Australian Whales. 


I have just received a pair of the ear-bones of Poescopia Nove 
Zelandie and some blades of the baleen of Balena marginata, 
direct from the sea near Swan River, showing that both these spe- 
cies are common to the west coast of Australia and New Zealand.— 
J. E. Gray. 


On the Structure of a Fern-stem from the Lower Eocene of Herne Bay, 
and on its Allies, recent and fossil. By W. Carruturrs, Esq., 
F.LS., F.G.S. 


The author described the characters of the fossil-stem of a Fern 
obtained by George Dowker, Esq., F.G.S., from the beach at Herne 
Bay, and stated that in its structure it agreed most closely with the 
living Osmunda regalis, and certainly belonged to the Osmundacee. 
The broken petioles show «a single crescentic vascular bundle. The. 
section of the true stem shows a white parenchymatous medulla, a 
narrow vascular cylinder interrupted by long slender meshes from 
which the vascular bundles of the petioles spring, and a parenchy- 
matous cortical layer. The author described the arrangement of 
these parts in detail, and indicated their agreement with the same 
parts in Osmunda regalis. He did not venture to refer the Fern, to 
which this stem had belonged, positively to the genus Osmunda, 
but preferred describing it as an Osmundites, under the name of 
O, Dowkeri, The specimen was silicified ; and the author stated that 


Miscellancous. 451 


even the starch-grains contained in its cells, and the mycelium of a 
parasitic Fungus traversing some of them, were perfectly represented. 
Its precise origin was unknown; it was said to be probably derived 
from the London Clay, or from the beds immediately below.—Proc. 
Geol. Soc. March 9, 1870. 


Observations on the Ornithological Fauna of the Bourbonnais during 
the Middle Tertiury Period. By M. A. Mrzne-Epwarps. 


When I commenced the paleontological investigation of the 
tertiary strata of the Bourbonnais, I was far from thinking that 
the birds whose remains are buried in those deposits would furnish 
clearer and more precise indications as to the general character of 
the miocene fauna of that part of France than the fossil mammalia 
and reptiles of the same region. In fact, birds, being endowed with 
powerful organs of locomotion, are in general less settled than the 
species belonging to the classes mammalia and reptiles. 

When I presented to the Academy my work on the fossil birds 
of France, there was nothing to justify me in expressing an opinion 
of this kind; but by pursuing my researches upon this subject I 
have arrived at new results, which seem to me of great importance 
and of a nature to enlighten us as to the character of this tertiary 
fauna better than the paleontological history of the other vertebrate 
animals of the basin of the Allier, in the present state of our know- 
ledge. 

Among the fossil birds the presence of which I have recently 
ascertained in the tertiary deposits of Saint-Gerand-le-Puy and 
Langy, there are several which give to this ancient fauna an al- 
most intertropical and, especially, an African character—namely, 
Parrots, Trogons, Salanganes, Gangas, Marabous, and Secretaries or 
Serpent-eaters. 

The Parrots constitute a perfectly natural family, well-marked 
and easily characterized by the structure of the bones as well as by 
the external form. It occupies the hottest regions in both hemi- 
spheres, and has no representatives in the present day either in Eu- 
rope or in extratropical Asia, or in the part of America situated 
north of the Gulf of Mexico. 

In the tertiary period there existed in France a parrot which, 
in its osteological characters, differs notably from the Australian 
types, as also from the maccaws and other American genera, and 
presents much analogy with certain African species, especially Psit- 
tacus erythacus of Senegal and South Africa. This tertiary parrot 
(which I have called Psittacus Verreauvii, and which I shall describe 
in one of the next parts of my work on fossil birds) is the sole ex- 
ample of a parrot which lived in geological times, and it establishes 
the first mark of resemblance between the miocene ornithological 
faunaa of the Allier and the existing fauna of Africa. 

The Couroucous or Trogons, the plumage of which is not less bril- 
liant than that of the Parrots, now inhabit the hottest parts of the 
globe ; they occur in America, in Asia, and in Africa, but only in 


452 Miscellaneous. 


the torrid zone; but I have collected bones undoubtedly belonging 
to a Trogon in the deposits of Saint-Gerand-le-Puy. These birds 
usually live in well-wooded places, where they feed on insects ; thus 
the presence of 7'rogon gallicus in the Bourbonnais tends to prove the 
existence of considerable forests in the vicinity of the lakes of this 
part of France. ‘ 

The Gangas or Sandgrouse live at present in Africa and in the 
warmer regions of Asia: they are only birds of passage in the south 
of Europe; but they are represented in the ancient fauna of the 
Allier by a peculiar species, to which I have given the name of 
Pterocles sépultus. 

The Salanganes (which have been confounded with the Swallows 
by most ornithologists, but which really differ therefrom greatly in 
their mode of organization, and belong to the family of the Swifts or 
Cypselidee) now inhabit only India, Cochin China, some of the Poly- 
nesian islands, and the Mascarene islands. One species of this 
group, very nearly allied to the existing species, has left its remains 
in the tertiary strata of the Bourbonnais. 

A large bird of the stork family seems to represent, in this region, 
the Marabous, which now-a-days occur from the Senegal to Cochin 
China. 

The discovery of a secretary-bird in the midst of this ancient 
population seems to me very interesting. Serpentarius or Gypo- 
geranus reptilivorus, which occurs in Africa, from Abyssinia to the 
neighbourhood of the Cape of Good Hope, is at present the sole 
representative of a peculiar family of predaceous birds organized for 
running rather than for flying. Now, as I have shown with regard 
to the flamingoes, the zoological groups which, at the present day, 
are represented only by a single species, or by a very small number 
of species, probably at an ancient period possessed a numerical im- 
portance not inferior to that of the other equivalent natural groups. 
The existence of a second member of the family Serpentariidze in the 
miocene epoch therefore seems to me to be an important zoological 
fact ; and the presence of these large birds of prey in France and in 
Africa at different periods constitutes a new feature of resemblance 
between the miocene fauna of the Bourbonnais and the existing 
fauna of the African continent. I have as yet found only a single 
bone of the foot of this fossil secretary-bird ; but the organic cha- 
racters of this part of the skeleton are so distinct that there can be 
no uncertainty as to the determination of the type to which the bird 
from which this fragment was derived belonged. 

In my first work on fossil birds, submitted to the Academy in 
1865, I showed that at the miocene epoch flamingoes, ibises, and 
pelicans inhabited the shores of the lakes of the Bourbonnais ; but it 
was necessary, to be very reserved as to the conclusions which might 
be drawn from these facts with regard to the general character of the 
ornithological population. The fresh discoveries which I have just 
made known fully confirm the conjectures which I had formed upon 
this subject, and lead me to think that, at the period when the lower 
miocene beds of the Allier were deposited, the biological conditions 


Miscellaneous. 453 


in that part of France must have been nearly the same as those 
which exist now-a-days in certain tropical regions. —Comptes Rendus, 
March 14, 1870, p. 557. 


On the Pancreas in Osseous Fishes, and on the Nature of the Vessels 
discovered by Weber. By 8. Lucouts. 


The author indicates, in a few words, the history of our knowledge 
of supposed pancreatic structures in the osseous fishes, and shows 
that five years ago the pancreas had been recognized only in two 
species (Stlurus glanis and Hsoxv lucius), and supposed pancreatic 
granulations in about a dozen more. Weber noticed two systems of 
canals of very different appearance passing from the liver to the in- 
testine in the carp, and imagined that the liver might furnish bile 
to one set and pancreatic juice to the other. This interpretation 
was rejected by C. Bernard, who, however, met with the double set 
of canals in other species. 

The author commenced his researches in 1865; and he has ex- 
amined 43 species, representing the principal families. He finds 
that Weber’s canals exist in all the osseous fishes ; they are invisible, 
like the middle lymphatics, in most species, but sometimes pearly 
(carp, turbot). They constantly open into the duodenum, near 
the gall-duct, and often by an ampulla. In some species with a 
convoluted intestine they acquire a very elegant arborescent form 
(barbel, grey mullet). Scarcely an intestinal sinus but receives 
some branchlet of this system; it passes among the pyloric appen- 
dages (dory, mackerel), associates its principal trunks with the 
ductus choledochus, the splenic and mesenteric veins, and the portal 
vein, which it follows into the mass of the liver. 

All the osseous fishes possess a pancreas, however its elements 
may be dispersed, and the Plagiostomi have one similar in all re- 
spects to that of other Vertebrata. Among ossecus fishes the author 
distinguishes the following three forms :— 

1. Disseminated pancreas.—Glandular globules dispersed through 
the laminz of the peritoneum (barbel, lumpfish, sardine, sand- 
smelt, loach, &c.). 

2. Diffused pancreas.—In this the pancreas is lamellar, and re- 
sembles that of the rabbit, but forms a glandular web of very much 
greater tenuity. It is diffused throughout the interstices between 
the viscera, sometimes to such a degree (Carana) that these are im- 
mersed in a pancreatic mass. The author refers to the following 
species among others as exhibiting this form of pancreas in various 
modifications :—conger, gurnard, Sparus, and stickleback. 

3. Massive pancreas, resembling the organ in the higher Vertebrata 
(Silurus, pike, eel). 

The three forms are associated, at least two and two. Weber’s 
canals are the excretory ducts of the first two forms; and every one 
of their branches terminates in a gland. In many species the 
pancreatic and hepatic glands are still in progress when the fish is 
adult; this explains the apparent penetration of the pancreas into 
the liver.—Comptes Rendus, May 16, 1870, p. 1098. 

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 4. Vol. v. 31 


454 Miscellaneous. 


On the Megadactylus polyzelus of Hitchcock. By E. D. Corr. 


This genus was named by Hitchcock in his ‘Supplement to the 
Tchnology of New England,’ p. 39, 1865; the bones have been briefly 
described in his ‘ Ichnology,’ on p. 186. The remains were found, 
in a more or less fragmentary condition, in the red-sandstone rocks 
of the valley of the Connecticut, from the neighbourhood of Spring- 
field, Massachusetts. They were found by William Smith, while 
engaged in superintending some excavations made at the armoury, 
which required blasting. 

The remains consist of four caudal and one dorsal vertebra, the 
greater part of the left fore foot, with distal portions of the ulna and 
radius, the greater part of the left femur, proximal end of left tibia, 
greater part of left fibula, tarsus, and hind foot, including a tarsal 
bone, perfect metatarsus, proximal end of a second metatarsus, parts 
of the distal end of a third, and parts and impressions of four pha- 
langes. 

These fragments demonstrate the former existence in the region 
in question of a typical form of the suborder or order Symphypoda 
(Compsognatha, Huxley), and one nearer the birds than any other 
hitherto found in America. Its pertinence to this order is shown 
by the absence of the first series of tarsal bones, apparently (as 
Gegenbaur has suggested, and as the structure of Zelaps proves) in 
consequence of their confluence with the distal extremities of the 
tibia and fibula. This important character is apparently assumed 
early in life in the present genus and in Compsognathus, and proba- 
bly quite late in Ornithotarsus. In Compsognathus the additional 
peculiarity of the persistence of but two carpal bones is presented, 
which, according to Gegenbaur, should correspond with those of the 
first row of ordinary Reptilia, while those of the second have disap- 
peared. In Megadactylus those of the first series are present, viz. 
the radial and probably ulnar, and one of the second row, very 
much reduced, opposite to the second metacarpus; there is space 
for a second one of the second series, but it does not appear in the 
matrix, while the ulnar is probably lost. 

The bird-like tendencies of the Symphypoda have been indicated 
above; and the very ornithic character of the bones of the present 
form is also very marked. The walls of the long bones are very 
thin; in some places near their extremities almost as thin as 
writing-paper. The vertebree and ischia present the same thin walls ; 
the structure of these walls is exceedingly dense. 

Prof. Cope next gives the special characters of the bones, which 
are here omitted. He adds :— 

That animals of this genus made some of the tracks similar to 
those of birds in the red sandstones of the valley of the Connecticut 
there can be no doubt. It furthermore explains some problematical 
impressions which are occasionally found with them. Tracks of an 
animal resting in a plantigrade position, as indicated by the moulds 
of two long parallel metatarsi, each terminated by three toes, are 
accompanied by a peculiar, bilobate, transversely oval mark on the 
middle line, some distance behind the heels. 


Miscellaneous. 455 


Prof. Hitchcock states that it appears to be the-impression of a 
short stiff tail. The present specimen shows clearly that it was 
made by the obtuse extremities of the ischia. The saurian squatted 
down, resting on its styloid ischia as the third leg of a tripod, of 
which the anterior pair was represented by the hinder legs. Prof. 
O. C. Marsh informs me that in the museum of Yale College a slab 
exhibiting impressions similar to the above shows the impressions 
of the anterior feet also, which were put to the ground in the act of 
rising or sitting, or perhaps reached to it while the animal was 
squatting, as do those of carnivorous Mammalia. 

The tracks of many of the animals discovered by Hitchcock are 
plantigrade. That they could not have walked like the plantigrade 
mammal is sufficiently evident from the length of the metatarsal 
elements, which would ‘necessitate a constant contraction of the 
tibialis anticus muscle, or a peculiar arrangement of the tarsal bones 
for its support. The latter does not appear to have existed ; and the 
former is so very improbable that, in connexion with the pneumatic 
structure of the bones, there is abundant reason to suppose that they 
progressed by leaps, and assumed the plantigrade position when at 
rest. 

No portion of the cranium or dentition of this genus has been 
preserved. The large stout hooked claws of the fore foot would 
indicate a more or less carnivorous diet. 

The existence of Symphypoda in the strata here indicated, with 
the occurrence of a Pterosaurian in a similar situation in Pennsyl- 
vania, points to the existence of the transition from Keuper to Lias 
(that is, from Triassic to Jurassic beds) in the red sandstones of the 
eastern United States. They have been heretofore regarded as 
Triassic*, which the lower portions of them undoubtedly are, and 
similar to the German Keuper in the presence of Labyrinthodonts, 
Thecodonts, and Dinosauria in both Pennsylvania and N. Carolina, 

The remains here described were alluded to by Prof. R. Owen as 
those ofa Saurian pointing to the Pterodactyles or Birds, provided the 
cavities of the bones were filled with marrow, and not with cartilage. 
Prof. Wyman regarded them as those of a reptile, though the long 
bones might have been referred to a bird, if considered alone. 
‘«« While the bones from Springfield are as hollow as those of the Ptero- 
dactyle, I do not find that they are those of this animal; there is 
no positive proof of the long fingers, nor of the broad sternum, which 
these reptiles possessed. The existence of the large toe in company 
with the small one is in favour of a jumping animal.”—From the 
Memoir of Prof. Cope on Extinct Reptilia and Aves, Amer. Phil. Soc., 
unpublished volume.—Silliman’s American Journal, May 1870, 


* Hitchcock, in his ‘Ichnology’ (1858), holds that the beds containing 
the tracks are $3 ower Jurassic, either Oolitic or Lias; and Dana, in his 
‘Geology’ (pp. 414, 445), says that the so-called Triassic is probably i in 
part Jurassic. —Eps, Am, Journ. Sct. 


456 


INDEX ro VOL. V. 


ABISARA, new species of, 365. 

Accipiter, new species of, 527. 

Adams, A., on some proboscidiferous 
Gasteropods from the seas of Ja- 
pan, 418. 

Adelium, new species of, 102. 

Ailuropoda, description of the ge- 
nus, 307. 

Alcyonaria, on the anatomy of the,68. 

Alligator, on the myology of the, 175. 

Allman, Prof. G. J., on Polytrema 
miniaceum, 372. 

Amarygmus, new species of, 105. 

Amphihelia, new species of, 292. 

Amphoridium, characters of the ge- 
nus, 177, 

Amphoriscus, characters of the ge- 
nus, 177. 

Anchiphlebia, new species of, 362. 

Animals, on the food of oceanic, 62, 
144. 

Anodonta anatina, on the specific 
distinctness of, 65. 

Anourosorex, description of the ge- 
nus, 307. 

Antheridium, on the structure and 
development of the, in Ferns, 255. 

Anthozoanthus parasiticus, observa- 
tions on, 449. 

Archichthys, description of the new 
genus, 266. 

Artynella, characters of the genus, 
187. 

Artynophyllum, characters of the 
genus, 188. 

Ass, on the antiquity of the, as a 
domestic animal in Egypt, 148. 
Asterostoma, observations on the 

genus, 230, 

Atthey, T., on an undescribed fossil 
fish from the Coal-shale, 266; on 
the occurrence of Loxomma All- 
manni in the Northumberland 
Coal-field, 374. 

Auloplegma, characters of the genus, 
188. 

Aulorrhiza, characters of the genus, 


Balbiani, on the constitution and 
mode of formation of the ovum of 
the Sacculine, 303, 


Beaver, on the remains of the, in 
New Jersey, 70. 

Billings, F., on the structure of the 
Crinoidea, Cystidea, and Blastoi- 
dea, 2651, 409. 

Birds, on the nasal glands of, 70; 
new, 173, 218, 327, 416; fossil, 
notes on some, 451. 

Blackwall, J., on some new species 
and ‘a new genus of spiders from 
Sicily, 392. 

Blastoidea, on the structure of the, 
251, 409. 

Boarella, characters of the new ge- 
nus, 406. 

Books, new: — Rabenhorst’s Flora 
europea Algarum, 127; Martin’s 
Microscopic Objects, 188 ; Seeley’s 
Index to the Fossil Remains of 
Ayes, Ornithosauria, and Reptilia 
in the Woodwardian Museum, 225; 
Boudier, sur les Ascoboles, 226; 
Garbiglietti’s Catalogus Hemi- 
pterorum heteropterorum Italie 
indigenorum, 285. 

Bothriocephalus proboscideus, on the 
embryonic development of, 149. 

Bovella, characters of the genus, 407. 

Bruchus, new species of, 25. 

Buchanga, new species of, 219. 

Busella, characters of the new ge- 
nus, 405. 

Butler, A. G., on a collection of But- 
terflies from the South Seas, 357 ; 
on new Diurnal Lepidoptera, 362. 

Byrsax, new species of, 95. 

Cabestana, new species of, 420. 

Callidryas, new species of, 561. 

Carpophaga, new species of, 328. 

Carruthers, W., on the structure ofa 
Fern-stem from the lower Eocene 
of Herne Bay, 460. 

Carter, H. J., on the sponges Gray- 
ella, Osculina, and Cliona, 73; on 
two new species of the Foramini- 
ferous genus Squamulina and on a 
new species of Difflugia, 809; on 
Haliphysema ramulosa, and the 
sponge-spicules of Polytrema, 3&9; 
on Anthozoanthus parasiticus,459; 
on Myricsteon, 449." 


INDEX. 


Cephaloptera, on the branchial appa- 
ratus of, 385. 

Chapman, Dr. T.A., on the parasitism 
of Rhipiphorus paradoxus, 191. 

Charis, new species of, 364. 

Chatin, J., on the'salivary glands in 
Myrmecophaga tamandua, 152. 
Cliona, observations on, 73; on the 
arrangement of the afferent orifices 

in, 146. 

Clistolinthus, characters of the ge- 
nus, 186. 

Codaster, on the genus, 261. 

Ccenostomella, characters of the ge- 
nus, 186, 

Coleoptera of St. Helena, on the, 18 ; 
of the Cape-Verde Islands, 245; 
of Old Calabar, on the, 430. 

Cope, E. D., on Megadactylus poly- 
zelus, 454. 

Copepoda, on the dermal skeleton of 
the, 369. 

Corals, on the relationship of the 
Sponges to the, 1, 107,204; new ge- 
nera and species of Aleyonoid, 405. 

Cotteau, G., on the genus Astero- 
stoma, 230. 

Crinoidea, on the structure of the, 
251, 409. 

Crossoptilon, new species of, 508. 

Crustacea, on the occurrence of two 
species of, not hitherto observed 
in Scotland, 145; on the fresh- 
water, of Belgium, 367. 

Cryptogamia, on the male prothal- 
lium of the vascular, 379. 

Ctenophora, description of the new 
genus, 401. 

Cyathiscus, characters of the genus, 
179, 

Cyllene, new species of, 427. 

Cystidea, on the structure of the, 
251, 409. 

Danais, new species of, 860. 

Daphnie, on the dermal skeleton of 
the, 367. 

David, A., on a new species of Cros- 
soptilon, 808. 

Deep-sea researches, 63, 286, 288. 

Didymograpsus, on the British spe- 
cies of, 537, 

Difflugia, on a new species of, 325. 

Dinoria, new species of, 103. 

Discophora, on the habits of the,145. 

Duchartre, P., on the turning of 
Fungi, 386. 

Dumérvil, A., on ‘the branchial appa- 


457 


ratus of the genus Cephaloptera, 
385. 

Duncan, Dr., on the Madreporaria, 
286. 

Dyssyconella, characters of the ge- 
nus, 180. 

Dyssyeum, characters of the genus, 
180. 

Echinoderms, on the homologies of 
the respiratory organs of the pa- 
leeozoic and recent, 409. 

Emesis, new species of, 364. 

Ephialtes, new species of, 417. 

Epidromus, new species of, 420, 

Eupera, characters of the new genus, 
106. 

Euploea, new species of, 357. 

Ferns, on the structure and develop- 
ment of the antheridium in, 235 ; 
on fertilization in, 331. 

Fish, description of a new genus of 
fossil, 266. 

Fishes, on the structure and mode of 
growth of the scales of, 67; on the 
pancreas in osseous, 453. 

Force, on the metamorphosis of, 302. 

Fungi, on the turning of, 386. 

Gasteropods, morphological — re- 
searches on the, 385; on Japanese 
species of proboscidiferous, 418. 

Geocichla, new species of, 416. 

Glaucomyias, new species of, 218. 

Glyciphila, new species of, 331. 

Gonoplax angulata, on the occurrence 
of, in Scotland, 145. 

Gould, B. A., on force and will, 3C0. 

Gould, J., on a supposed new spe- 
cies of pigeon, 62. 

Gray, G. R., on new species of birds, 
327. 

Gray, Dr. J. E., on the British spe- 
cies of Orca, 148; notes on Heec- 
tor’s list of the bones of Seals and 
Whales in the Wellington Mu- 
seum, New Zealand, 220; on My- 
riosteon Higginsii, 866; on some 
new genera and species of Alcyo- 
noid Corals, 405; on the geogra- 
phical distribution of Australian 
‘Whales, 450. 

Grayella, observations on the struc- 
ture of, 73. 

Hiickel, K., on the organization of 
the Sponges and their relationship 
to the Corals, 1, 107 ; prodromus 
of a system of the Calcareous 
Sponges, 176. 


458 


Haliphysema ramulosa, observations 
on, 389. 

Hancock, A., on Janassa bituminosa, 
47; on an undescribed fossil fish 
from the Coal-shale, 266; on the 
occurrence of Loxomma Allmanni 
in the Northumberland Coal-field, 
374, 

Hector’s, Dr. J., List of the bones of 
Seals and Whales in the Welling- 
ton Museum, New Zealand, and 
observations on it, 220. 

Helzeus, new species of, 99. 

Hincks, Rev. T., on the habits of the 
Discophora, 145. 

Hirundo urbica, on the transforma- 
tion of the nests of the, 307. 

Homeeodera, description of the new 
genus, 25. 

Horse, on the antiquity of the, asa 
domestic animal in Egypt, 148. 
Howse, R., on Janassa bituminosa, 

47. 

Irena, new species of, 417. 

Isotira, characters of the new genus, 
97. 

Ixus, new species of, 175. 

Janassa bituminosa, observations on, 
47. 

Jeffreys, J. G., on the food of oceanic 
animals, 144; on a new British 
land-shell, 285; on Norwegian 
Mollusca, 488. 

Jobert, M., on the nasal glands of 
Birds, 70. 

Kent, W.8., on Stenchelia, a new 
genus of the Madreporaria, 120; 
on the relationship of the Sponges 
to the Corals, 204; on a new spe- 
cies of Sagitta, 268. 

Kny, Dr. L., on the structure and 
development of the antheridium 
in Ferns, 233. 

Lacaze-Duthiers, M., on a station of 
a living Encrinus upon the coasts 
of France, 149; on the morpho- 
logy of the Mollusca, 283. 

Lalage, new species of, 329. 

Lecidew, analytical key to the, 128. 

Legouis, S., on the pancreas in cs- 
seous fishes, 443. 

Leighton, Rev. W. A., on certain new 
characters in the species of Ne- 
phroma and Nephromium, 37. 

Lenormant, F., on the antiquity of 
the ass and horse as domestic ani- 
mals in Egypt, 148. 


INDEX. 


Lepidoptera, new, 357, 362. 

Libellule, on the respiration of the 
nymphe of the, 71. 

Lichens, observations on, 37. 

Licinoma, new species of, 103. 

Lignella, characters of the genus, 
407. 

Linyphia, new species of, 403. 

Lipostomella, characters of the ge- 
nus, 187. 

Lloyd, R. M., on the specific distinct- 
ness of Anodonta anatina, 65. 

Longicorns from Old Calabar, 430. 

Loxomma Allmanni, on the occur- 
rence of, in the Northumberland 
Coal-field, 374. 

Lycett, Dr. J., on a byssiferous fossil 
Trigonia, 17. 

Lycoella, characters of the genus, 
408. 

Lycosa, new species of, 394. 

Lymnas, new species of, 363. 

Lyropteryx, new species of, 364. 

Macacus, new species of, 306. 

Macalister, Prof. A., on the myology 
of the Wombat and the Tasmanian 
Devil, 153. 

Madreporaria, on anew genus of 120; 
researches on the, 286. 

Mammalia, new, from Eastern Thi- 
bet, 506, 

Mecznikow, E., on the embryonic 
development of Bothriocephalus 
proboscideus, 149. 

Megadactylus polyzelus, observations 
on, 454, 

Megalaima, new species of, 219. 

Megapodius, new species of, 528, 

Menacella, characters of the new 
genus, 406. 

Menella, characters of the genus, 
407. 

Millardet, A., on the male prothal- 
lium of the vascular Cryptogamia, 
379. 

Milne-E-dwards, A., on scme Mam- 
malia frcm Eastern Thibet, 806; 
on the ornithological fauna of the 
Bourbonnais during the middle 
Tertiary period, 45]. 

Mollusca, morphological researches 
on the, 883; Norwegian, 438, 

Mordella, new species of, 35. 

Muritella, characters of the new ge- 
nus, 405. 

Munray, A., on the relations between 
Wasps and Rhipipheri, 83, 278 ; 


INDEX. 


on Coleoptera from Old Calabar, 
430, 

Mychestes, characters of the new 
genus, 95. . 

Myévre, on the anatomy of the Al- 
eyonaria, 68. 

Myriosteon Higginsii, notes on, 333, 
449, 

Myrmecophaga tamandua, on the 
salivary glands in, 152. 

Nardopsis, characters of the genus, 
185. 

Nectogale, description of the genus, 
397. 

Nephroma, on certain new characters 
in the species of, 37. 

Nephromium, on certain new cha- 
racters in the species of, 37. 

Nicholson, Dr. H. A., on the British 
species of Didymograpsus, 337. 

Notioxenus, new species of, 22. 

Notule Lichenologice, 37, 123. 

Olynthium, characters of the genus, 
177. 

Olynthus, characters of the genus, 
176. 

Omolipas, new species of, 98. 

Orea, on the British species of, 148. 

Ornithological fauna of the Bour- 
bonnais during the middle Ter- 
tiary period, on the, 451. 

Ornithopsis, observations on, 279. 

Osculina, observations on, 73. 

Osmundites, description of the ge- 
nus, 450. 

Otidiphaps, new species of, 62. 

Oustalet, M., on the respiration of 
the nymph of the Libellule, 71. 

Parthenogenesis, observations on, 
298. 

Pascoe, F. P., on the Tenebrionidee 
of Australia, 94. 

Passer, new species of, 218. 

Pennella, new species of, 43. 

Pentacrinus europzeus, on the habits 
of, 149. 

Pentremites, observations on the ge- 
nus, 263. 

Pheeocella, characters of the new 
genus, 406. 

Phascolomys wombata, on the myo- 
logy of, 153. 

Philemon, new species of, 527. 

Philhydrus, on the species of, found 
in the Atlantic islands, 15; new 
species of, 245. 

Philodromus, new species of, 398. 


459 


Pisa tetraodon, on’ the occurrence 
of, in Scotland, 145. 

Plateau, F., on the freshwater Crus- 
tacea of Belgium, 367. 

Polistes gallica, on parthenogenesis 
in, 298. 

Polytrema miniaceum, note on, 372; 
on the sponge-spicules of, 389. 

Porzana, new species of, 173. 

Pouchet, G., oa the anatomy of the 
Aleyonaria, 68 ; on the transforma- 
tion of the nests of the House- 
Martin, 307. 

Pringsheim, N., on the pairing of 
zoospores, 272. 

Prinia, new sp2cies of, 219. 

Prosycum, characters of the genus, 
176. 

Pterohelzeus, new species of, 98. 

Pteromys, new species of, 397. 

Ptilonopus, new species of, 323. 

Pyrrhogyra, new species of, 362. 

Rhipidura, new sp2cies of, 330. 

Rhipiphori and Wasps, on the rela- 
tions between, 83, 191, 198, 278, 
369. 

Rhytida, new species of, 42. 

Tissoa, new species of, 445. 

Sacculine, on the formation of the 
ego and embryonic development of 
the, 140, 393. 

Sagitta, new species of, 268. 

Salbey, De., on the structure and 
mode of growth of the scales of 
fishes, 67. 

Salticus, new species of, 395.* 

Saragus, new species of, 100. 

Sarcophilus ursinus, on the myology 
of, 153. 

Sars, Prof. M., obituary notice of, 
yale 

Scissurella crispata, on the animal 
of, 444. 

Scymena, new species of, 94. 

Scymnus, new species of, 248. 

Seals, list of the bones of, in the 
Wellington Museum, New Zealand, 
220. 

Seeley, H. G., on Ornithopsis, 279; 
on Zoocapsa dolichorhamphia, 283. 

Seirotrana, new species of, LO. 

Semnopithecus, new species of, 306. 

Semper, C., on a new genus of Testa- 
cellidie, 42. 

Sharp, D., on the species of Philhy- 
drus found in the Atlantic islands, 
13. 


460 


Siebold, Prof. von, on parthenoge- 
nesis in Polistes gallica, 298. 

Simpulum, new species of, 419. 

Sitta, new species of, 218, 

Siva, new species of, 174. 

Smith, F., on the parasitism of Rhi- 
piphorus paradoxus, 365. 

Soleniscus, characters of the genus, 
182. 

Spatangus meridionalis of Risso, note 
on, 146. 

Spiders, on Sicilian, 392. 

Sponges, on the organization of, and 
their relationship to the Corals, 1, 
107, 204; prodromus of a system 
of the calcareous, 176. 

Squamulina, on two new species of 
the foraminiferous genus, 309. 

Stalachtis, new species of, 365. 

Stenohelia, characters of the new 
genus, 121. 

Stizenberger, Dr. E., on the Lecidez, 
123, 

Strasburger, Dr. I., on fertilization 
in Ferns, 331. 

Swinhoe, R., on three new species 
of Birds from China, 173. 

Sycarium, characters of the genus, 
Kg 

Sycidium, characters of the genus, 
184. 


Sycocystis, characters of the genus, 

? 

86. 

Sycodendrum, characters of the ge- 
nus, 184, 

Sycolepis, characters of the genus, 
188. 

Sycometra, characters of the genus, 
189. 

Sycophyllum, characters of the ge- 
nus, 188. 

Sycorrhiza, characters of the genus, 
187. 

Sycothamnus, characters of the ge- 
nus, 184. 

Talpa, new species of, 307. 

Tanaécia, new species of, 362. 

Tarroma, characters of the genus, 
183. 


INDEX. 


Tarrus, characters of the genus, 183. 

Tenebrio, new species of, 248. 

Tenebrionidx, new, 94. 

Testacellidae, new genus of, 42. 

Thecometra, characters of the genus, 
189. 

Theridion, new species of, 400. 

Thomisus, new species of, 396. 

Trigonia, on a byssiferous fossil, 17. 

Ursus, new species of, 307. 

Vaillant, L., on the arrangement of 
the pores or afferent orifices in 
Cliona celata, 146. 

Van Beneden, E., on the mode of 
formation of the egg and the em- 
bryonic development of the Sac- 
culinee, 140. 

Volutharpa, new species of, 422. 

Walden, Viscount, on some new 
species of Birds from Southern 
Asia, 218, 416. 

Wallich, Dr. G. C., on deep-sea re- 
searches, 63. 

Wasps and Rhipiphori, on the rela- 
tions between, 83, 191, 198, 278, 
365, 

Watson, Dr. M., on the occurrence 
of two species of Crustacea not 
hitherto observed in Scotland, 145, 

Weld, M. C., on remains of the 
Beaver in New Jersey, 70. 

Whales, list of the bones of, in the 
Wellington Museum, New Zealand, 
220; on the geographical distri- 
bution of Australian, 450, 

Wollaston, T. V., on the Coleoptera 
of St. Helena, 18; on the Coleo- 
ptera of the Cape-Verde Islands, 
245. 

Wright, Prof. E. P., on a new species 
of Pennella, 48; on a collection of 
Spiders made in Sicily, 392. 

Zeuxis, new species of, 426. 

Zonites, on a new British species of, 
385. 

Zoocapsa dolichorhamphia, descrip- 
tion of, 283. 

Zoospores, on the pairing of, 272. 

Zophobas, new species of, 33. 


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